CORTICAL MOTOR MODULATION
Corticobulbar neuron recording
a
PAG
PCRt
ChR2
ChR2
CeA
Time
Time
Frequency
Frequency
ALM
ALM
Pursuit
Killing
and
Figure 5
Modulatory and regulatory upper motor centers impacting the brainstem. (a) Neurons in the ALM influence
the directional bias of licking in a delayed discrimination task. Preparatory cortical activity ramping up
during the delay period in right-sided ALM layer 5 pyramidal tract neurons with brainstem projections,
which precedes left-directional licking activity before action is initiated. Note that, during right-directional
licks, similar neuronal activity cannot be observed. (b) Predatory hunting behavior composed of pursuit and
killing phases regulated by inhibitory neurons in the CeA projecting to the PAG and the PCRt, respectively.
Only joint axonal stimulation (blue light) in both target regions elicits full behavior but in a behavioral
context-dependent manner. Abbreviations: ALM, anterior lateral motor cortex; CeA, central amygdala;
ChR2, channelrhodopsin 2; PAG, periaqueductal gray; PCRt, parvicellular reticular nucleus.
(Whelan 1996). Several recent studies have assessed the functional capacity of interacting up-
stream structures with specific brainstem or midbrain circuits to instruct or modulate specific
motor actions.
In the cortex, a fraction of layer 5 neurons, also often referred to as pyramidal tract (PT) neu-
rons, projects to subcortical areas including the colliculi, brainstem, and spinal cord (Shepherd
2013), raising the question of the nature of their influence on behavior. PT neurons located in the
anterior lateral motor cortex (ALM) and projecting to the brainstem often showed contralaterally
biased, task-related activity before movement onset during a sensorimotor delayed discrimination
task involving directional licking (Li et al. 2015) (Figure 5). Interestingly, bilateral ALM silenc-
ing during the motor planning phase randomizes licking direction but does not abolish licking in
general (N. Li et al. 2016), indicating a modulatory role for these neurons possibly by acting on
brainstem targets to orchestrate specifically the licking direction. In a more complex motor task
involving the learning of a skilled forelimb movement, learning-related changes in PT neuron
activity in the motor cortex provide a possible cellular mechanism for how movement refinement
occurs during learning (Peters et al. 2017), but whether this is implemented through interaction
with brainstem circuits is currently unclear. Together, these studies suggest a role for cortical neu-
rons that project to the brainstem and spinal cord in modulating the activity of specific circuits in
response to behavioral requirements involving fine aspects of motor performance and learning.
www.annualreviews.org
•
Circuits Controlling Action Diversification
497
Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2019.42:485-504. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Access provided by Koc University on 06/13/21. For personal use only.
NE42CH23_Arber
ARjats.cls
May 29, 2019
7:37
It is also interesting to understand interactions between different types of subcortical neurons
and the brainstem. The central amygdala (CeA) sends long-range inhibitory projections to dis-
tinct centers in the midbrain and brainstem (Tovote et al. 2015). Specifically manipulating CeA
projections to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) or the PCRt revealed their differential contribution
to hunting or killing behaviors, respectively (Han et al. 2017) (Figure 5). Coincident optogenetic
stimulation of axonal terminals in both target areas was sufficient to elicit a complete predatory
hunting sequence. Interestingly, however, some effects were only observed in the presence of natu-
ral or artificial prey, suggesting a context-dependent component in the ability to elicit the behavior
(Han et al. 2017). The PAG also receives different inputs from the hypothalamus and superior col-
liculus involved in regulating distinct locomotor modes ranging from freezing to escaping (Evans
et al. 2018, Li et al. 2018).
Some basal ganglia regions, including the output structure substantia nigra pars reticulata
(SNr), also project to motor-related areas in the brainstem (Arber & Costa 2018, Mena-Segovia
& Bolam 2017). Although functional studies linking basal ganglia projections to the brainstem
are rare, the revealed neuronal coding within these circuits allows for an interesting hypothesis
to be developed. Neurons in the striatum, the major basal ganglia input structure, encode vari-
ous behavior-related parameters, with specific populations preferentially active during different
behaviors such as grooming, locomotion, turning, or rearing (Barbera et al. 2016, Klaus et al.
2017, Parker et al. 2018). Such specific activity patterns are likely transferred and processed be-
tween functionally related cell populations within connected basal ganglia circuitry. Indeed, the
SNr also harbors action-specific neuronal coding, and this information might be differentially fed
toward brainstem circuits (Arber 2012, Jin & Costa 2015, Jin et al. 2014, Mena-Segovia & Bolam
2017, Rossi et al. 2016, Tecuapetla et al. 2016).
These results lead to the hypothesis that subcortical regions contain channels to specific brain-
stem centers to aid in the selection and execution of certain motor behaviors depending on con-
text. In contrast, direct cortical inputs to the brainstem might rather act as behavioral modulators,
allowing adaptation according to behavioral needs, challenges, and motivations.
Dostları ilə paylaş: |