circuit organization. The MLR in the midbrain contains the PPN and the CnF, which are implicated in low-
and high-speed locomotion, respectively. Excitatory neurons in the LPGi are implicated in high-speed
induced by the optogenetic stimulation of inhibitory LPGi neurons, rGi Chx10-expressing neurons, or
rostrally projecting inhibitory neurons in the PRF. The speed versus time plots illustrate that optogenetic
nucleus; 7N, seventh motor nucleus; ChAT, choline acetyltransferase; Chx10, Ceh-10 homeodomain-
containing homolog; CnF, cuneiform nucleus; LPGi, lateral paragigantocellular nucleus; MLR,
mesencephalic locomotor region; PPN, pedunculopontine nucleus; PRF, pontine reticular formation; rGi,
rostral Gi; vGAT, vesicular GABA transporter; vGlut2, vesicular glutamate transporter 2.
activity or elicits low-speed locomotion, while stimulation of vGlut2 neurons in the dorsome-
dial cuneiform nucleus (CnF) of the MLR induces high-speed locomotion (Caggiano et al. 2018,
volved in defensive locomotion and the PPN in exploratory forms of locomotion ( Jordan 1998).
In addition to locomotion-promoting properties, the MLR also seems to house circuits for the
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attenuation of locomotor behaviors, which was suggested from both electrical (Takakusaki et al.
2016) and neurotransmitter-stratified optogenetic ( Josset et al. 2018, Roseberry et al. 2016) stim-
ulation experiments. Yet how these neurons relate to and/or interact with their locomotion-
promoting counterparts remains to be defined.
Locomotion-promoting signals from the MLR have been proposed to reach the spinal cord via
mostly disynaptic pathways through intermediary neurons in the caudal brainstem, since cooling
experiments in the ventral medulla severely reduce the effects of MLR stimulation on locomo-
tion (Shefchyk et al. 1984). Electrophysiological recordings in the medullary reticular formation
in cats and mice revealed patterns of neuronal activity that correlate with locomotor parameters
(Drew et al. 1986, Weber et al. 2015). Paired electromyography and neuronal recordings showed
highly diverse neuronal discharge patterns linked to the activity of individual or groups of mus-
cles in cats (Drew et al. 1986). Despite these locomotion-correlated activity patterns, electrical
stimulation experiments in the caudal brainstem failed to show consistent induction of full-body
locomotion, leading to the idea that neuronal diversity might mask the regional properties to bring
about such effects (Orlovsky et al. 1999). Indeed, a recent study demonstrated that optogenetic
stimulation at different sites within the caudal medulla in mice also cannot induce full-body lo-
comotion (Capelli et al. 2017). However, the specific optogenetic activation of excitatory neurons
in the lateral paragigantocellular nucleus (LPGi) elicited reliable and short-latency locomotion
(Figure 4). Functional studies further demonstrated that these vGlut2-LPGi neurons were es-
sential for high-speed locomotion and that the MLR locomotion-promoting signal is reduced in
the absence of these neurons (Capelli et al. 2017).
Conversely, restricting optogenetic stimulation to intermingled inhibitory neurons within the
LPGi and neighboring medullary subregions attenuated locomotor behaviors ranging from sim-
ple behavioral stopping to body collapse akin to atonia (Capelli et al. 2017). In addition, another
study demonstrated that a more rostrally located excitatory brainstem population marked by the
V2a population–specific transcription factor Chx10 also influences the halting of ongoing loco-
motion, likely through accessing locomotion-inhibiting spinal circuits (Bouvier et al. 2015). Simi-
larly, glycinergic neurons in the pontine reticular formation negatively influence locomotor speed
through ascending projections to the thalamus (Giber et al. 2015) (Figure 4). Surprisingly, V2a
neurons in the zebrafish brainstem have opposite behavioral roles in that they promote swimming
and, upon silencing, lead to the stopping of this behavior (Kimura et al. 2013). These findings
might point to some evolutionary changes in how neurons of similar genetic identity in analogous
regions of the nervous system are engaged. Nevertheless, the existence of specific neuronal pop-
ulations that encode distinct locomotor attributes is conserved across species ( Juvin et al. 2016,
Kimura et al. 2013).
Together, these findings demonstrate the existence of specific neuronal populations within the
brainstem network between the midbrain and more caudal brainstem regions that regulate differ-
ent attributes of locomotor behavior (Figure 4). The execution of locomotor commands from the
brainstem likely occurs through interactions with distinct circuits at the level of the spinal cord.
Indeed, it has already become apparent that descending pathways originating from identified neu-
ronal populations access spinal circuits differentially (Bouvier et al. 2015, Capelli et al. 2017).
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