itory inputs to the pupilloconstrictor neurons
in the midbrain. As a result, lesions of the
pontine tegmentum, which destroy both these
ascending inhibitory inputs to the pupillo-
constrictor system and the descending excit-
atory inputs to the pupillodilator system, cause
the most severely constricted pupils seen in
humans.
Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are
located in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus in
primates.
87,88
This complex cell group also
contains peptidergic neurons that mainly pro-
vide descending projections to the spinal cord.
In rodents and cats, most of the pupillocon-
strictor neurons are located outside the Edin-
ger-Westphal nucleus, and the nucleus itself
mainly consists of the spinally projecting pop-
ulation, so that extrapolation from nonprimate
species (where the anatomy and physiology of
the system has been most carefully studied)
is difficult.
The main input to the Edinger-Westphal
nucleus of clinical interest is the afferent limb
of the pupillary light reflex. The retinal gan-
glion cells that contribute to this pathway be-
long to a special class of irradiance detectors,
most of which contain the photopigment me-
lanopsin.
89
The same population of retinal gan-
glion cells that drives the pupillary light reflex
also provides inputs to the suprachiasmatic nu-
cleus in the circadian system, and in many cases
individual ganglion cells send axonal branches
to both systems. Although these ganglion cells
are activated by the traditional pathways from
rods and cones, they also are directly light sen-
sitive, and as a consequence pupillary light re-
flexes are preserved in animals and humans
with retinal degeneration who lack rods and
cones (i.e., are functionally blind). This is in
contrast to acute onset of blindness, in which
preservation of the pupillary light reflex im-
plies damage to the visual system beyond the
optic tracts, usually at the level of the visual
cortex.
The brightness-responsive retinal ganglion
cells innervate the olivary pretectal nucleus.
Neurons in the olivary pretectal nucleus then
send their axons through the posterior com-
missure to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus of
both sides.
90
The Edinger-Westphal nucleus
in humans, as in other species, lies very close to
the midline, just dorsal to the main body of the
oculomotor nucleus. As a result, lesions that
involve the posterior commissure disrupt the
light reflex pathway from both eyes, resulting
in fixed, slightly large pupils.
Descending cortical inputs can cause either
pupillary constriction or dilation, and can ei-
ther be ipsilateral, contralateral, or bilateral.
91
Sites that may produce pupillary responses are
found in both the lateral and medial fron-
tal lobes, the occipital lobe, and the temporal
lobe. Unilateral pupillodilation has also been
reported in patients during epileptic seizures.
However, the pupillary response can be either
ipsilateral or contralateral to the presumed
origin of the seizures. Because so little is known
about descending inputs to the pupillomotor
system from the cortex and their physiologic
role, it is not possible at this point to use pu-
pillary responses during seizure activity to de-
termine the lateralization, let alone localiza-
tion, of the seizure onset. However, brief,
reversible changes in pupillary size may be due
to seizure activity rather than structural brain-
stem injury. We have also seen reversible and
asymmetric changes in pupillary diameter in
patients with oculomotor dysfunction due to
tuberculous meningitis and with severe cases
of Guillain-Barre´ syndrome that cause auto-
nomic denervation.
Examination of the Comatose Patient
57
Localizing Value of Abnormal
Pupillary Responses in Patients
in Coma
Characteristic pupillary responses are seen
with lesions at specific sites in the neuraxis
(Figure 2–7).
Diencephalic injuries typically result in small,
reactive pupils. Bilateral, small, reactive pupils
are typically seen when there is bilateral dience-
phalic injury or compression, but also are seen
in almost all types of metabolic encephalopathy,
and therefore this finding is also of limited value
in identifying structural causes of coma.
A unilateral, small, reactive pupil accompa-
nied by ipsilateral ptosis is often of great di-
agnostic value. If there is no associated loss of
sweating in the face or the body (even after the
patient is placed under a heating lamp that
causes sweating of the contralateral face), then
the lesion is likely to be along the course of the
internal carotid artery or in the cavernous si-
nus, superior orbital fissure, or the orbit itself
(Raeder’s paratrigeminal syndrome, although
in some cases the Horner’s syndrome is merely
incomplete). If there is a sweating defect con-
fined to the face (peripheral Horner’s syn-
drome), the defect must be extracranial (from
the T1–2 spinal level to the carotid bifurca-
tion). However, if the loss of sweating involves
the entire side of the body (central Horner’s
syndrome), it indicates a lesion involving the
pathway between the hypothalamus and the
spinal cord on the ipsilateral side. Although hy-
pothalamic unilateral injury can produce this
finding, lesions of the lateral brainstem tegmen-
tum are a more common cause.
Midbrain injuries may cause a wide range
of pupillary abnormalities, depending on the
Midbrain:
midposition, fixed
Pons:
pinpoint
Pretectal:
large, "fixed", hippus
Diencephalic:
small, reactive
Diffuse effects of
drugs, metabolic
encephalopathy, etc.:
small, reactive
III nerve (uncall):
dilated, fixed
Figure 2–7. Summary of changes in pupils in patients with lesions at different levels of the brain that cause coma. (From
Saper, C. Brain stem modulation of sensation, movement, and consciousness. Chapter 45 in: Kandel, ER, Schwartz, JH, Jessel,
TM. Principles of Neural Science. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000, pp. 871–909. By permission of McGraw-Hill.)
58
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
nature of the insult. Bilateral midbrain tegmen-
tal infarction, involving the oculomotor nerves
or nuclei bilaterally, results in fixed pupils,
which are either large (if the descending sym-
pathetic tracts are preserved) or midposition (if
they are not). However, pupils that are fixed
due to midbrain injury may dilate with the
ciliospinal reflex. This response distinguishes
midbrain pupils from cases of brain death. It is
often thought that pupils become fixed and di-
lated in death, but this is only true if there is a
terminal release of adrenal catecholamines. The
dilated pupils found immediately after death
resolve over a few hours to the midposition, as
are seen in patients who are brain dead or who
have midbrain infarction.
More distal injury, after the oculomotor nerve
leaves the brainstem, is typically unilateral. The
oculomotor nerve’s course makes it suscepti-
ble to damage by either the uncus of the tem-
poral lobe as it herniates through the tentorial
opening (see supratentorial causes of coma, page
103) or an aneurysm of the posterior commu-
nicating artery. Either of these lesions may com-
press the oculomotor nerve from the dorsal di-
rection. Because the pupilloconstrictor fibers
lie superficially on the dorsomedial surface of
the nerve at this level,
92
the first sign of im-
pending disaster may be a unilateral enlarged
and poorly reactive pupil. These conditions are
discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
Pontine tegmental injury typically results in
pinpoint pupils. The pupils can often be seen
under magnification to respond to bright light.
However, the simultaneous injury to both the
descending and ascending pupillodilator path-
ways causes near maximal pupillary constric-
tion.
86
The most common cause is pontine
hemorrhage.
Lesions involving the lateral medullary teg-
mentum, such as Wallenberg’s lateral medul-
lary infarction, may cause an ipsilateral central
Horner’s syndrome.
Metabolic and Pharmacologic
Causes of Abnormal
Pupillary Response
Although the foregoing discussion illustrates
the importance of the pupillary light response
in diagnosing structural causes of coma, it
is critical to be able to distinguish structural
causes from metabolic and pharmacologic
causes of pupillary abnormalities. Nearly any
metabolic encephalopathy that causes a sleepy
state may result in small, reactive pupils that
are difficult to differentiate from pupillary re-
sponses caused by diencephalic injuries. How-
ever, the pupillary light reflex is one of the most
resistant brain responses during metabolic en-
cephalopathy. Hence, a comatose patient who
shows other signs of midbrain depression (e.g.,
loss of other oculomotor responses) yet retains
the pupillary light reflex is likely to have a met-
abolic disturbance causing the coma.
During or following seizures, one or both
pupils may transiently (usually for 15 to 20
minutes, and rarely as long as an hour) be large
or react poorly to light. During hypoxia or
global ischemia of the brain such as during a
cardiac arrest, the pupils typically become large
and fixed, due to a combination of systemic
catecholamine release at the onset of the is-
chemia or hypoxia and lack of response by the
metabolically depleted brain. If resuscitation is
successful, the pupils usually return to a small,
reactive state. Pupils that remain enlarged and
nonreactive for more than a few minutes after
otherwise successful resuscitation are indica-
tive of profound brain ischemia and a poor
prognostic sign (see discussion of outcomes
from hypoxic/ischemic coma in Chapter 9).
Although most drugs that impair conscious-
ness cause small, reactive pupils, a few produce
quite different responses that may help to iden-
tify the cause of the coma. Opiates, for exam-
ple, typically produce pinpoint pupils that re-
semble those seen in pontine hemorrhage.
However, administration of an opioid antago-
nist such as naloxone results in rapid reversal
of both the pupillary abnormality and the im-
pairment of consciousness (naloxone must be
given carefully to an opioid-intoxicated patient,
because if the patient is opioid dependent, the
drug may precipitate acute withdrawal). Chap-
ter 7 discusses the use of naloxone. Muscarinic
cholinergic antagonist drugs that cross the
blood-brain barrier, such as scopolamine, may
cause a confused, delirious state, in combina-
tion with large, poorly reactive pupils. Lack of
response to pilocarpine eye drops (see above)
demonstrates the muscarinic blockade. Glu-
tethimide, a sedative-hypnotic drug that was
popular in the 1960s, was notorious for causing
large and poorly reactive pupils. Fortunately, it
is rarely used anymore.
Examination of the Comatose Patient
59
OCULOMOTOR RESPONSES
The brainstem nuclei and pathways that con-
trol eye movements lie in close association with
the ascending arousal system. Hence, it is un-
usual for a patient with a structural cause of
coma to have entirely normal eye movements,
and the type of oculomotor abnormality often
identifies the site of the lesion that causes
coma. A key clinical tenet of the coma exami-
nation is that, with rare exception (e.g., a co-
matose patient with a congenital strabismus),
asymmetric oculomotor function typically iden-
tifies a patient with a structural rather than
metabolic cause of coma.
Functional Anatomy of the
Peripheral Oculomotor System
Eye movements are due to the complex and
simultaneous contractions of six extraocular
muscles controlling each globe. In addition, the
muscles of the iris (see above), the lens accom-
modation system, and the eyelid receive input
from some of the same central cell groups and
cranial nerves. Each of these can be used to
identify the cause of an ocular motor distur-
bance, and may shed light on the origin of coma
(Figure 2–8).
93
Lateral movement of the globes is caused by
the lateral rectus muscle, which in turn is un-
Vestibular Cortex
Dorsolateral
Prefrontal Cortex
MT (V5)
Striate Cortex (VI)
MST
Angular gyrus
Supramarginal gyrus
SUPERIOR PARIETAL LOBULE
INFERIOR
PARIETAL
LOBULE
Parietal Eye Field
Frontal Eye Field
Supplementary Eye Field
Middle
Frontal
Gyrus
Inferior
Frontal Gyrus
MLF Vln
PPRF
PPRF
MVn
SVn
SCol
RIC
RIMLF
MLF
Illn
MLF
IVn
MLF
IVn
SCol
RIC
RIMLF
MLF
Illn
Superior Frontal
Gyrus
Figure 2–8. A summary diagram showing the major pathways responsible for eye movements. The frontal eye fields (A)
provide input to the superior colliculus (SCol) to program saccadic eye movements. The superior colliculus then provides
input to a premotor area for causing horizontal saccades (the paramedian pontine reticular formation [PPRF]), which in
turn contacts neurons in the abducens nucleus. Abducens neurons (VIn) send axons across to the opposite medial longi-
tudinal fasciculus (MLF) and to the opposite oculomotor nucleus (IIIn) to activate medial rectus motor neurons for the
opposite eye. Vertical saccades are controlled by inputs from the superior colliculus to the rostral interstitial nucleus of
the MLF (RIMLF) and rostral interstitial nucleus of Cajal (RIC), which act as a premotor area to instruct the neurons in
the oculomotor and trochlear (IVn) nuclei to perform a vertical saccade. Vestibular and gaze-holding inputs come to the
same ocular motor nuclei from the medial (MVN) and superior (SVN) vestibular nucleus. Note the intimate relationship
of these cell groups and pathways with the ascending arousal system.
60
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
der the control of the abducens or sixth cranial
nerve. The superior oblique muscle and troch-
lear or fourth cranial nerve have more complex
actions. Because the trochlear muscle loops
through a pulley, or trochleus, it attaches be-
hind the equator of the globe and pulls it for-
ward rather than back. When the eye turns
medially, the action of this muscle is to pull the
eye down and in. When the eye is turned lat-
erally, however, the action of the muscle is to
intort the eye (rotate it on its axis with the top
of the iris moving medially). All of the other
extraocular muscles receive their innervation
through the oculomotor or third cranial nerve.
These include the medial rectus, whose action
is to turn the eye inward; the superior rectus,
which pulls the eye up and out; and the infe-
rior rectus and oblique, which turn the eye down
and out and up and in, respectively. It should
be clear from the above that, whereas impair-
ment of mediolateral movements of the eyes
mainly indicates imbalance of the two cog-
nate rectus muscles, disturbances of upward or
downward movement are far more complex to
work out, as they result from dysfunction of
the complex set of balanced contractions of the
other four muscles. This situation is reflected
in the central control of these movements, as
will be reviewed below.
The oculomotor nerve exits the brainstem
through the medial part of the cerebral pedun-
cle, then travels anteriorly between the supe-
rior cerebellar and posterior cerebral arteries.
It passes through the tentorial opening and
runs adjacent to the posterior communicating
artery, where it is subject to injury by posterior
communicating artery aneurysms. The nerve
then runs through the cavernous sinus and su-
perior orbital fissure to the orbit, where it di-
vides into superior and inferior branches. The
superior branch innervates the superior rectus
muscle and the levator palpebrae superioris,
which raises the eyelid, and the inferior branch
supplies the medial and inferior rectus and
inferior oblique muscles as well as the ciliary
ganglion. The abducens nerve exits from the
base of the pons, near the midline. This slender
nerve, which is often avulsed when the brain is
removed at autopsy, runs along the clivus,
through the tentorial opening, into the cavern-
ous sinus and superior orbital fissure, on its
way to the lateral rectus muscle. The trochlear
nerve is a crossed nerve (i.e., it consists of ax-
ons whose cell bodies are on the other side of
the brainstem) and it is the only cranial nerve
that exits from the dorsal side of the brainstem.
The axons emerge from the anterior medullary
vellum just behind the inferior colliculi, then
wrap around the brainstem, pass through the
tentorial opening, enter the cavernous sinus,
and travel through the superior orbital fissure
to innervate the superior oblique muscle.
Unilateral or even bilateral abducens palsy
is commonly seen as a false localizing sign in
patients with increased intracranial pressure.
Although the long intracranial course of the
nerve is often cited as the cause of its predis-
position to injury, the trochlear nerve (which
is rarely injured by diffusely increased intra-
cranial pressure) is actually longer,
94
and the
sharp bend of the abducens nerve as it enters
the cavernous sinus may play a more decisive
role. From a clinical point of view, however, it
is important to remember that isolated unilat-
eral or bilateral abducens palsy does not nec-
essarily indicate a site of injury. The emergence
of the trochlear nerve from the dorsal mid-
brain just behind the inferior colliculus makes
it prone to injury by the tentorial edge (which
runs along the adjacent superior surface of the
cerebellum) in cases of severe head trauma.
Thus, trochlear nerve palsy after head trauma
does not necessarily represent a focal brain-
stem injury (although the dorsal brainstem
at this level may be damaged by the same
process).
The course of all three ocular motor nerves
through the cavernous sinus and superior or-
bital fissure means that they are often damaged
in combination by lesions at these sites. Thus, a
lesion of all three of these nerves unilaterally
indicates injury in the cavernous sinus or supe-
rior orbital fissure rather than the brainstem.
Head trauma causing a blowout fracture of
the orbit may trap the eye muscles, resulting
in abnormalities of ocular motility unrelated to
any underlying brain injury. The entrapment
of the eye muscles is determined by forced
duction (i.e., resistance to physically moving
the globe) as described below in the exami-
nation.
Functional Anatomy of the Central
Oculomotor System
The oculomotor nuclei receive and integrate
a large number of inputs that control their
Examination of the Comatose Patient
61
activity and coordinate eye muscle movement
to produce normal, conjugate gaze. These af-
ferents arise from cortical, tectal, and tegmen-
tal oculomotor systems, as well as directly from
the vestibular system and vestibulocerebellum.
In principle, these classes of afferents are not
greatly different from the types of inputs that
control alpha-motor neurons concerned with
striated muscles, except the oculomotor mus-
cles do not contain muscle spindles and hence
there is no somesthetic feedback.
The oculomotor nuclei are surrounded by
areas of the brainstem tegmentum containing
premotor cell groups that coordinate eye move-
ments.
93,95,96
The premotor area for regulating
lateral saccades consists of the paramedian
pontine reticular formation (PPRF), which is
just ventral to the abducens nucleus. The PPRF
contains several different classes of neurons
with bursting and pausing activities related
temporally to horizontal saccades.
97
Their main
effect is to allow conjugate lateral saccades to
the ipsilateral side of space, and when neurons
in this area are inactivated by injection of local
anesthetic, ipsilateral saccades are slowed or
eliminated. In addition, neurons in the dorsal
pontine nuclei relay smooth pursuit signals to
the flocculus, and the medial vestibular nucleus
and flocculus are both important for holding
eccentric gaze.
98
Inputs from these systems con-
verge on the abducens nucleus, which contains
two classes of neurons: those that directly in-
nervate the lateral rectus muscle (motor neu-
rons) and those that project through the medial
longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) to the opposite
medial rectus motor neurons in the oculomo-
tor nucleus. Axons from these latter neurons
cross the midline at the level of the abducens
nucleus and ascend on the contralateral side of
the brainstem to allow conjugate lateral gaze.
Thus, pontine tegmental lesions typically re-
sult in the inability to move the eyes to the
ipsilateral side of space (lateral gaze palsy).
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