induces only tonic deviation (there is no lit-
tle or no corrective nystagmus), so the eyes
deviate toward the ear that is irrigated. The
presence of typical vestibular nystagmus in a
patient who is unresponsive indicates a psy-
chogenic cause of unresponsiveness (i.e., the
patient is actually awake). The absence of a
response to caloric stimulation does not always
imply brainstem dysfunction. Bilateral vestib-
ular failure occurs with phenytoin or tricyclic
antidepressant toxicity. Aminoglycoside vestib-
ular toxicity may obliterate the vestibular re-
sponse, but oculocephalic responses may per-
sist, the neck muscles supplying the afferent
information.
112
On the other hand, because the oculomotor
pathways are spatially so close to those in-
volved in producing wakefulness, it is rare for a
patient to have acute damage to the oculo-
motor control system without a change in con-
sciousness.
Patient 2–1
A 56-year-old man with a 20-year history of poorly
controlled hypertension came to the emergency
department with a complaint of sudden onset of
severe dizziness. On examination, he was fully
awake and conversant. Pupils were 2.5 mm and
constricted to 2.0 mm with light in either eye. The
patient could not follow a moving light to either
side or up or down. Hearing was intact, as were
facial, oropharyngeal, and tongue motor and sen-
sory responses. Motor and sensory examination
was also normal, tendon reflexes were symmetric,
and toes were downgoing.
The patient was sent for computed tomography
(CT) scan, which showed a hemorrhage into the
periventricular gray matter in the floor of the fourth
ventricle at a pontine level, which tracked rostrally
into the midbrain. During the CT scan the patient
lapsed into coma. At that point, the pupils were
pinpoint and the patient was unresponsive with
flaccid limbs. He subsequently died, but autopsy
was not permitted.
Comment. The sudden onset of bilateral im-
pairment of eye movements on the background of
clear consciousness is rare, and raised the possi-
bility of a brainstem injury even without uncon-
sciousness. Although the CT scan demonstrated a
focal hemorrhage selectively destroying the ab-
ducens nuclei and medial longitudinal fasciculi,
the proximity of these structures to the ascending
arousal system was demonstrated by the loss of
consciousness over the next few minutes.
Finally, if there has been head trauma, one
or more eye muscles may become trapped
by a blowout fracture of the orbit. It is im-
portant to distinguish this cause of abnor-
mal eye movements from damage to neural
structures, either peripherally or centrally.
This is generally done by an ophthalmologist,
who applies topical anesthetics to the globe
and uses a fine, toothed forceps to tug on the
sclera to attempt to move the globe (forced
duction). Inability to move the globe through
a full range of movements may indicate a
trapped muscle and requires evaluation for
orbital fracture.
Interpretation of Abnormal
Ocular Movements
A wide range of eye movements may be seen,
both at rest and during vestibular stimulation.
Each presents clues about the nature of the
insult that is causing the impairment of con-
sciousness.
68
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
RESTING AND SPONTANEOUS
EYE MOVEMENTS
A great deal of information may be gained by
carefully noting the position of the eyes and
any movements that occur without stimulation.
Table 2–3 lists some of the spontaneous eye
movements that may be observed in uncon-
scious patients. Detailed descriptions are given
in the paragraphs below. Most individuals have
a mild degree of exophoria when drowsy and
not maintaining active fixation. However, other
individuals have varying types of strabismus,
which may worsen as they become less re-
sponsive and no longer attempt to maintain
conjugate gaze. Hence, it is very difficult to
determine the meaning of dysconjugate gaze
in a stuporous or comatose patient if nothing
is known about the presence of baseline stra-
bismus.
On the other hand, certain types of dyscon-
jugate eye movements raise suspicion of brain-
stem injury that may require further exami-
nation for confirmation. For example, injury
to the oculomotor nucleus or nerve produces
exodeviation of the involved eye. Unilateral
abducens injury causes the involved eye to
deviate inward. In skew deviation,
114
in which
one eye is deviated upward and the other
downward, there typically is an injury to the
brainstem (see below).
CONJUGATE LATERAL DEVIATION
OF THE EYES
This is typically seen with destructive or irri-
tative lesions, as compressive or metabolic dis-
orders generally do not affect the supranuclear
ocular motor pathways asymmetrically. A de-
structive lesion involving the frontal eye fields
causes the eyes to deviate toward the side of
the lesion (away from the side of the associ-
ated hemiparesis). This typically lasts for a few
days after the onset of the lesion. An irritative
lesion may cause deviation of the eyes away
from the side of the lesion. These eye move-
ments represent seizure activity, and often
there is some evidence of quick, nystagmoid
jerks toward the side of eye deviation indica-
tive of continuing seizure activity. If seizure
activity abates, there may be a Todd’s paralysis
of gaze for several hours, causing lateral gaze
deviation toward the side of the affected cor-
tex (i.e., opposite to the direction caused by
the seizures). Hemorrhage into the thalamus
may also produce ‘‘wrong-way eyes,’’ which
deviate away from the side of the lesion.
115,116
Table 2–3 Spontaneous Eye Movements Occurring in Unconscious Patients
Term
Description
Significance
Ocular bobbing
Rapid, conjugate, downward movement;
slow return to primary position
Pontine strokes; other structural,
metabolic, or toxic disorders
Ocular dipping
or inverse ocular
bobbing
Slow downward movement;
rapid return to primary position
Unreliable for localization; follows
hypoxic-ischemic insult
or metabolic disorder
Reverse ocular
bobbing
Rapid upward movement;
slow return to primary position
Unreliable for localization; may
occur with metabolic disorders
Reverse ocular dipping
or converse bobbing
Slow upward movement;
rapid return to primary position
Unreliable for localization; pontine
infarction and with AIDS
Ping-pong gaze
Horizontal conjugate deviation of the
eyes, alternating every few seconds
Bilateral cerebral hemispheric
dysfunction; toxic ingestion
Periodic alternating
gaze deviation
Horizontal conjugate deviation of the
eyes, alternating every 2 minutes
Hepatic encephalopathy; disorders
causing periodic alternating
nystagmus and unconsciousness
or vegetative state
Vertical ‘‘myoclonus’’
Vertical pendular oscillations (2–3 Hz)
Pontine strokes
Monocular
movements
Small, intermittent, rapid monocular
horizontal, vertical, or torsional
movements
Pontine or midbrain destructive
lesions, perhaps with coexistent
seizures
From Leigh and Zee,
93
with permission.
Examination of the Comatose Patient
69
This may be due to interruption of descending
corticobulbar pathways for gaze control, which
pass through the thalamic internal medullary
lamina, rather than the internal capsule. Dam-
age to the lateral pons, on the other hand, may
cause loss of eye movements toward that side
(gaze palsy, Figure 2–9). The lateral gaze devi-
ation in such patients cannot be overcome by
vestibular stimulation, whereas vigorous ocu-
locephalic or caloric stimulation usually over-
comes lateral gaze deviation due to a cortical
gaze paresis.
CONJUGATE VERTICAL DEVIATION
OF THE EYES
Pressure on the tectal plate, such as occurs with
a pineal mass or sometimes with a thalamic hem-
orrhage, may cause conjugate downward devi-
ation of the eyes.
117,118
Oculogyric crises may
cause conjugate upward deviation. The classical
cause of oculogyric crises was postencephalitic
parkinsonism.
119
Few of these patients still
survive, but a similar condition is frequently
seen with dystonic crises in patients exposed to
neuroleptics
120
and occasionally in patients with
acute bilateral injury of the basal ganglia.
NONCONJUGATE EYE DEVIATION
Whereas nonconjugate eye position may be
due to an old baseline strabismus, failure of
one eye to follow its mate during spontaneous
or evoked eye movements is typically highly
informative. Absence of abduction of a single
eye suggests injury to the abducens nerve ei-
ther within the brainstem or along its course to
the orbit. However, either increased intracra-
nial pressure or decreased pressure, as occurs
with cerebral spinal fluid leaks,
121
can cause
either a unilateral or bilateral abducens palsy,
so the presence of an isolated abducens palsy
may be misleading. Isolated loss of adduction
of the eye contralateral to the head movement
implies an injury to the medial longitudinal
fasciculus (i.e., near the midline tegmentum)
on that side between the abducens and ocu-
lomotor nuclei (Figure 2–9). Bilateral lesions of
the medial longitudinal fasciculus impair ad-
duction of both eyes as well as vertical oculo-
cephalic and vestibulo-ocular eye movements,
a condition that is distinguished from bilateral
oculomotor nucleus or nerve injury in the co-
matose patient by preservation of the pupil-
lary light responses. (Voluntary vergence and
vertical eye movements remain intact, but re-
quire wakeful cooperation.)
Combined loss of adduction and vertical
movements in one eye indicates an oculomotor
nerve impairment. Typically, there may also be
severe ptosis on that side (so that if the patient
is awake, he or she may not be aware of dip-
lopia). In rare cases with a lesion of the ocu-
lomotor nucleus, the weakness of the superior
rectus will be on the side opposite the other
third nerve muscles (as these fibers are crossed)
and ptosis will be bilateral (but not very severe).
Occasionally, oculomotor palsy may spare the
pupillary fibers. This occurs most often when
the paresis is due to ischemia of the oculomotor
nerve (the smaller pupilloconstrictor fibers are
more resistant to ischemia), such as in diabetic
occlusion of the vasa nervorum. Such patients
are also typically awake and alert, whereas third
nerve paresis due to brainstem injury or com-
pression of the oculomotor nerve by uncal her-
niation results in impairment of consciousness
and early pupillodilation.
Trochlear nerve impairment causes a hy-
peropia of the involved eye, often with some
exodeviation. If awake, the patient typically
attempts to compensate by tilting the head
toward that shoulder. Because the trochlear
nerve is crossed, a trochlear palsy in a coma-
tose patient suggests damage to the trochlear
nucleus on the opposite side of the brainstem.
SKEW DEVIATION
Skew deviation refers to vertical dysconjugate
gaze, with one eye displaced downward com-
pared to the other. In some cases, the eye that
is elevated may alternate from side to side de-
pending on whether the patient is looking to
the left or the right.
95,122
Skew deviation is due
either to a lesion in the lateral rostral medulla
or lower pons, vestibular system, or vestibulo-
cerebellum on the side of the inferior eye, or in
the MLF on the side of the superior eye.
123–125
ROVING EYE MOVEMENTS
These are slow, random deviations of eye po-
sition that are similar to the eye movements
seen in normal individuals during light sleep.
As in sleeping individuals who typically have
some degree of exophoria, the eye positions
may not be quite conjugate, but the ocular
70
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
excursions should be conjugate. Most roving
eye movements are predominantly horizontal,
although some vertical movements may also
occur. Most patients with roving eye move-
ments have a metabolic encephalopathy, and
oculocephalic and caloric vestibulo-ocular re-
sponses are typically preserved or even hyper-
active. The roving eye movements may disap-
pear as the coma deepens, although they may
persist in quite severe hepatic coma. Roving
eye movements cannot be duplicated by pa-
tients who are awake, and hence their presence
indicates that unresponsiveness is not psycho-
genic. A variant of roving eye movements is
periodic alternating or ‘‘ping-pong’’ gaze,
126
in which repetitive, rhythmic, and conjugate
horizontal eye movements occur in a comatose
or stuporous patient. The eyes move conju-
gately to the extremes of gaze, hold the posi-
tion for 2 to 3 seconds, and then rotate back
again. The episodic movements of the eyes
may continue uninterrupted for several hours
to days. Periodic alternating eye movements
have been reported in patients with a variety of
structural injuries to the brainstem or even
bilateral cerebral infarcts that leave the ocu-
lomotor system largely intact, but are most
common during metabolic encephalopathies.
NYSTAGMUS
Nystagmus refers to repetitive rapid (saccadic)
eye movements, often alternating with a slow
drift in the opposite direction. Spontaneous
nystagmus is uncommon in coma because the
quick, saccadic phase is generally a corrective
movement generated by the voluntary sac-
cade system when the visual image drifts from
the point of intended fixation. However, con-
tinuous seizure activity with versive eye move-
ments may give the appearance of nystagmus.
In addition, several unusual forms of nystag-
moid eye movement do occur in comatose
patients.
Retractory nystagmus consists of irregular
jerks of both globes back into the orbit,
sometimes occurring spontaneously but other
times on attempted upgaze. Electromyography
during retractory nystagmus shows that the
retractions consist of simultaneous contrac-
tions of all six extraocular muscles.
127
Retrac-
tory nystagmus is typically seen with dorsal mid-
brain compression or destructive lesions
117
and is thought to be due to impairment of
descending inputs that relax the opposing eye
muscles when a movement is made, so that all
six muscles contract when attempts are made
to activate any one of them.
Convergence nystagmus often accompanies
retractory nystagmus and also is typically seen
in patients with dorsal midbrain lesions.
128
The eyes diverge slowly, and this is followed by
a quick convergent jerk.
OCULAR BOBBING AND DIPPING
Fischer
129
first described movements in which
the eyes make a brisk, conjugate downward
movement, then ‘‘bob’’ back up more slowly to
primary position. The patients were comatose
and the movements were not affected by ca-
loric vestibular stimulation. The initially de-
scribed patients had caudal pontine injuries or
compression, although later reports described
similar eye movements in patients with ob-
structive hydrocephalus, uncal herniation, or
even metabolic encephalopathy. A variety of re-
lated eye movements have been described in-
cluding inverse bobbing (rapid elevation of
the eyes, with bobbing downward back to pri-
mary position) and both dipping (downward
slow movements with rapid and smooth re-
turn to primary position) and inverse dipping
(slow upward movements with rapid return
to primary position).
130,131
The implications of
these unusual eye movements are similar to
those of ocular bobbing: a lower brainstem in-
jury or compression of normal vestibulo-ocular
inputs.
Seesaw nystagmus describes a rapid, pen-
dular, disjunctive movement of the eyes in
which one eye rises and intorts while the other
descends and extorts.
132
This is followed by
reversal of the movements. It is most com-
monly seen during visual fixation in an awake
patient who has severe visual field defects or
impairment of visual acuity, and hence is not in
a coma. Seesaw nystagmus appears to be due
in most cases to lesions near the rostral end
of the periaqueductal gray matter, perhaps
involving the rostral interstitial nucleus of
Cajal.
133
It may occasionally be seen also in
comatose patients, sometimes accompanied by
ocular bobbing, and in such a setting may in-
dicate severe, diffuse brainstem damage.
134
Nystagmoid jerks of a single eye may occur in
a lateral, vertical, or rotational direction in pa-
tients with pontine injury. It may be associated
Examination of the Comatose Patient
71
with skew deviation and if bilateral, the eyes
may rotate in the opposite direction.
MOTOR RESPONSES
The motor examination in a stuporous or co-
matose patient is, of necessity, quite different
from the patient who is awake and cooperative.
Rather than testing power in specific muscles,
it is focused on assessing the overall respon-
siveness of the patient (as measured by motor
response), the motor tone, and reflexes, and
identifying abnormal motor patterns, such as
hemiplegia or abnormal posturing.
Motor Tone
Assessment of motor tone is of greatest value in
patients who are drowsy but responsive to
voice. It may be assessed by gently grasping
the patient’s hand as if you were shaking hands
and lifting the arm while intermittently turning
the wrist back and forth. Tone can also be as-
sessed in the neck by gently grasping the head
with two hands and moving it back and forth or
up and down, and in the lower extremities by
grasping each leg at the knee and gently lifting
it from the bed or shaking it from side to side.
Normal muscle tone provides mild resistance
that is constant or nearly so throughout the
movement arc and of similar intensity regard-
less of the initial position of the body part.
Spastic rigidity, on the other hand, increases
with more rapid movements and generally has
a clasp-knife quality or a spastic catch, so that
the movement is slowed to a near stop by the
resistance, at which point the resistance col-
lapses and the movement proceeds again. Par-
kinsonian rigidity remains equally intense de-
spite the movement of the examiner (lead-pipe
rigidity), but is usually diminished when the
patient is asleep or there is impairment of con-
sciousness. In contrast, during diffuse meta-
bolic encephalopathies, many otherwise nor-
mal patients develop paratonic rigidity, also
called gegenhalten. Paratonic rigidity is charac-
terized by irregular resistance to passive move-
ment that increases in intensity as the speed of
the movement increases, as if the patient were
willfully resisting the examiner. If the patient is
drowsy but responsive to voice, urging him or
her to ‘‘relax’’ may result in increased tone.
Paratonia is often seen in patients with demen-
tia and is normally found in infants between
the second and eighth weeks of life, suggest-
ing that it represents a state of disinhibition of
forebrain control as the level of consciousness
becomes depressed. As patients become more
deeply stuporous, muscle tone tends to de-
crease and these pathologic forms of rigidity are
less apparent.
Motor Reflexes
Muscle stretch reflexes (sometimes erroneously
referred to as ‘‘deep tendon reflexes’’) may be
brisk or hyperactive in patients who are drowsy
or confused and have increased motor tone.
As the level of consciousness becomes further
depressed, however, the muscle stretch re-
flexes tend to diminish in activity, until in pa-
tients who are deeply comatose they may be
unobtainable.
Cutaneous reflexes such as the abdominal or
cremasteric reflex typically become depressed
as the level of consciousness wanes. On the
other hand, in patients who are drowsy or
confused, some abnormal cutaneous reflexes
may be released. These may include extensor
plantar responses. If the extensor plantar re-
sponse is bilateral, this may signify nothing
more than a depressed level of consciousness,
but if it is asymmetric or unilateral, this implies
injury to the descending corticospinal tract.
Prefrontal cutaneous reflexes, sometimes
called ‘‘frontal release reflexes’’ or primitive
reflexes,
135
may also emerge in drowsy patients
with diffuse forebrain impairment. Rooting,
glabellar, snout, palmomental, and other re-
flexes are often seen in such patients. How-
ever, these responses become increasingly
common with advancing age in patients with-
out cognitive impairment, so they are of lim-
ited value in elderly individuals.
136
On the
other hand, the grasp reflex is generally seen
only in patients who have some degree of bi- Dostları ilə paylaş: |