ally the result of a severe head injury, are of-
ten associated with underlying cerebral contu-
sions. Rarely, acute subdural hematomas may
occur without substantial trauma, particularly
in patients on anticoagulants. Rupture of an
aneurysm into the subdural space, sparing the
subarachnoid space, can also cause an acute sub-
dural hematoma. The mass accumulates rapidly,
causing underlying brain edema and herniation.
Ischemic brain edema results when herniation
compresses the anterior or posterior cerebral
arteries and causes ischemic brain damage.
21
Patients with acute subdural hematomas usually
present with coma, and such cases are surgical
emergencies. Early evacuation of the mass pro-
bably improves outcome, but because of un-
derlying brain damage, mortality remains sig-
nificant. Prognostic factors include age, time
from injury to treatment, presence of pupillary
abnormalities, immediate and persisting coma
as opposed to the presence of a lucid interval,
and volume of the mass.
22
Chronic subdural hematomas usually occur
in elderly patients or those on anticoagulants.
Chronic alcoholism, hemodialysis, and intra-
cranial hypotension are also risk factors. A his-
tory of trauma can be elicited in only about one-
half of patients, and then the trauma is usually
minor. The pathogenesis of chronic subdural
hematomas is controversial. One hypothesis is
that minor trauma to an atrophic brain causes a
small amount of bleeding. A membrane forms
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
123
around the blood. Vessels of the membrane
are quite friable and this, plus an increase of fi-
brinolytic products in the fluid, leads to repet-
itive bleeding, causing an enlarging hema-
toma.
23
Another hypothesis is that minor trauma
leads to the accumulation of either serum or ce-
rebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the subdural space.
This subdural hygroma also causes membrane
formation that leads to repetitive bleeding and
an eventual mass lesion.
24
If the hemorrhage is
small and no additional bleeding occurs, the
hematoma may resorb spontaneously. How-
ever, if the hematoma is larger or it is enlarged
gradually by recurrent bleeds, it may swell as
the breakdown of the blood into small mole-
cules causes the hematoma to take on additional
water, thus further compressing the adjacent
brain.
24
In addition, the membrane surrounding
the hematoma contains luxuriant neovascular-
ization that lacks a blood-brain barrier and may
cause additional edema in the underlying brain.
Chronic subdural hematomas are usually uni-
lateral, overlying the lateral cerebral cortex, but
may be subtemporal. They are bilateral in about
20% of patients, and occasionally are interhemi-
spheric (i.e., within the falx cerebri), sometimes
causing bilateral leg weakness by compression
of the medial frontal lobes.
Table 4–2 lists the clinical features of the
typical patient with a chronic subdural hema-
toma who presents with a fluctuating level of
consciousness.
A majority of patients, but no more than
70%, complain of headache. A fluctuating level
of consciousness is common.
23,25,26
There may
be tenderness to percussion of the skull at the
site of the hematoma. About 15% to 30% of
patients present with parenchymal signs such
as seizures, hemiparesis, or visual field defects.
Unusual focal signs such as parkinsonism, dy-
stonia,
27
or chorea occasionally confuse the
clinical picture. Focal signs such as hemipare-
sis or aphasia may fluctuate, giving an appear-
ance similar to transient ischemic attacks.
28
Occasionally patients may have unilateral as-
terixis. Because subdural hematoma can ap-
pear identical to a metabolic encephalopathy
(Chapter 5), imaging is required in any patient
without an obvious cause of the impairment of
consciousness.
The symptoms of subdural hematoma have
a remarkable tendency to fluctuate from day
to day or even from hour to hour, which may
suggest the diagnosis. The pathophysiology of
fluctuations is not clear. Some may reflect in-
creases in ICP associated with plateau waves,
29
and careful clinical observations suggest that
the level of consciousness reflects the patient
moving in and out of diencephalic or uncal
herniation. Given the breakdown in the blood-
brain barrier along the margin of the hema-
toma, this fluctuation may be due to fluid shifts
into and out of the brain, a situation from which
the brain is normally protected. When the brain
is critically balanced on the edge of herniation,
such fluid shifts may rapidly make the difference
between full consciousness and an obtunded
state. Cerebral blood flow in the hemisphere
underlying a subdural hematoma is reduced,
perhaps accounting for some of the unusual cli-
nical symptoms.
30
In favor of the vasogenic edema hypothesis
is the observation that oral administration of
corticosteroids rapidly and effectively reverses
the symptoms in subdural hematoma.
31
Cor-
ticosteroids reduce the leakage of fluid from
capillaries,
32
and they are quite effective in mini-
mizing the cerebral edema associated with sub-
dural hematomas.
Table 4–2 Diagnostic Features
of 73 Patients With Fluctuating Level
of Consciousness Due to Subdural
Hematoma
Unilateral hematoma
62
Bilateral hematomas
11
Mortality
14
(3 unoperated)
Number of patients
in stupor or coma
27
Principal clinical diagnosis before
hematoma discovered
Intracranial mass lesion
or subdural hematoma
24
Cerebral vascular disease, but
subdural hematoma possible
17
Cerebral infarction
or arteriosclerosis
12
Cerebral atrophy
5
Encephalitis
8
Meningitis
3
Metabolic encephalopathy
secondary to systemic illness
3
Psychosis
1
124
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Subdural hematoma can usually be diagnosed
by CT scanning. Depending on the age of the
bleeding, the contents of the mass between the
dura and the brain may be either hyperdense or
isodense (Figure 4–2). Acute subdural hema-
tomas are hyperdense, with the rare exception of
those occurring in extremely anemic patients and
those in whom CSF has entered the subdural
space, diluting the blood. Although the hema-
toma may become isodense with brain after 2 to
3 weeks, it may still contain areas of hyperdense
fresh blood, assisting with the diagnosis. How-
ever, if the entire mass is isodense and contrast
is not given, the subdural hematoma may be
Figure 4–2. A series of magnetic resonance imaging scans through the brain of Patient 4–1 demonstrating bilateral
subdural hematomas and their evolution over time. In the initial scan from 6/19/02 (A, B), there is an isodense subdural
hematoma of 11.5 mm thickness on the right (left side of image) and 8 mm thickness on the left. The patient was treated
conservatively with oral prednisone, and by the time of the second scan 1 month later (C, D), the subdural hematomas
were smaller and hypodense and the underlying brain was less edematous. By the end of the second month (E, F), the
subdural hematomas had been almost completely resorbed.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
125
difficult to distinguish from brain tissue, partic-
ularly if the hematomas are bilaterally symmet-
ric and do not cause the brain to shift. The lack
of definable sulci in the area of the hematoma
and a ‘‘supraphysiologic’’-appearing brain in an
elderly individual (i.e., a brain that lacks atro-
phy and deep sulci, usually seen with aging) are
clues to the presence of bilateral isodense sub-
dural hematomas. Chronic subdurals may be-
come hypodense. A CT scan with contrast clearly
defines the hematoma as the membranes, with a
luxuriant, leaky vascular supply, enhance pro-
fusely. MRI scanning can also define the hema-
toma, but the density is a complex function of
the sequence used and age of the hemorrhage.
Lumbar puncture is potentially dangerous
in a patient with a subdural hematoma. If the
brain is balanced on the edge of herniation, the
sudden relief of subarachnoid pressure from
below may further enhance the pressure cone
and lead to frank herniation. In such patients,
the CSF pressure may be low, due to the block-
age at the foramen magnum, leading to a false
sense of security. Hence, all patients who have
an impaired level of consciousness require an
imaging study of the brain prior to lumbar pun-
cture, even if meningitis is a consideration.
33
This issue is discussed further in the section on
meningitis on page 133.
The treatment of subdural hematomas has
traditionally been surgical.
34
Three surgical pro-
cedures, twist drill drainage, burr hole drainage,
and craniotomy with excision of membranes,
are used.
34,35
The procedure chosen depends
on whether the subdural hematoma has de-
veloped membranes, requiring more extensive
drainage, or is complex and compartmentalized,
requiring excision of the membranes. The out-
come of treatment varies in different series and
probably reflects differences in the patient pop-
ulation.
34
Although there have been no randomized
clinical trials of medical treatment of subdural
hematomas, many patients who have modest-
sized subdural hematomas with minimal symp-
toms (typically only a headache) and consider-
able ventricular and cisternal space, so there is
no danger of herniation, can be treated conser-
vatively with corticosteroids for several months
until the hematoma resorbs.
31,36
However, sub-
dural hematomas have a tendency to recur after
both medical and surgical therapy, and patients
must be followed carefully for the first several
months after apparently successful treatment.
Patient 4–1
A 73-year-old professor of art history developed
chronic bifrontal, dull headache. He had no his-
tory of head trauma, but was taking 81 mg of as-
pirin daily for cardiovascular prophylaxis. He felt
mentally dulled, but his neurologic examination
was normal. CT scan of the brain disclosed bilat-
eral chronic (low density) subdural hematomas of
8 mm depth on the left and 11.5 mm on the right.
He was started on 20 mg/day of prednisone with
immediate resolution of the headaches, and over
a period of 2 months serial CT scans showed that
the hematoma resolved spontaneously (see Figure
4–2). Repeat scan 3 months later showed no re-
currence.
Epidural Abscess/Empyema
In developing countries, epidural infections are
a feared complication of mastoid or sinus in-
fection.
37
In developed countries, neurosurgi-
cal procedures,
38
particularly second or third
craniotomies in the same area, and trauma are
more likely causes.
39
Sinusitis and otitis, if in-
adequately treated, may extend into the epidu-
ral space, either along the base of the temporal
lobe or along the surface of the frontal lobe.
The causative organisms are usually aerobic and
anaerobic streptococci if the lesion originates
from the ear or the sinuses, and Staphylococ-
cus aureus if from trauma or surgery. The pa-
tient typically has local pain and fever. Vomiting
is common
37
; focal skull tenderness and me-
ningism suggest infection rather than hemor-
rhage. The pathophysiology of impairment of
consciousness is similar to that of an epidural
hematoma, except that epidural empyema typ-
ically has a much slower course and is not asso-
ciated with acute trauma. CT scan is character-
ized by a crescentic or lentiform mass between
the skull and the brain with an enhanced rim.
Diffusion is restricted on diffusion-weighted
MRI, distinguishing it from hematomas or effu-
sions where diffusion is normal or increased.
40,41
Antibiotics and surgical drainage are effective
treatments.
38
The causal organisms can usually
be cultured to allow appropriate selection of
antibiotics. Some children whose epidural ab-
scess originates from the sinuses can be treated
126
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
conservatively with antibiotics and drainage of
the sinus rather than the epidural mass.
42
Dural and Subdural Tumors
A number of tumors and other mass lesions may
invade the dura and compress the brain. These
lesions include dural metastases,
43
primary tu-
mors such as hemangiopericytoma,
44
hema-
topoietic neoplasms (plasmacytoma, leukemia,
lymphoma), and inflammatory diseases such as
sarcoidosis.
44
These are often mistaken for the
most common dural tumor, meningioma.
45
Meningiomas can occur anywhere along the
dural lining of the anterior and middle cranial
fossas. The most common locations are over
the convexities, along the falx, or along the base
of the skull at the sphenoid wing or olfactory
tubercle. The tumors typically present by com-
pression of local structures. In some cases, this
produces seizures, but over the convexity there
may be hemiparesis. Falcine meningiomas may
present with hemiparesis and upper motor neu-
ron signs in the contralateral lower extremity;
the ‘‘textbook presentation’’ of paraparesis is
quite rare. If the tumor occurs near the frontal
pole, it may compress the medial prefrontal
cortex, causing lapses in judgment, inconsis-
tent behavior, and, in some cases, an apathetic,
abulic state. Meningioma underlying the orbi-
tofrontal cortex may similarly compress both
frontal lobes and present with behavioral and
cognitive dysfunction. When the tumor arises
from the olfactory tubercle, ipsilateral loss of
smell is a clue to the nature of the problem.
Meningiomas of the sphenoid wing may invade
the cavernous sinus and cause impairment of
the oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), and abdu-
cens nerves (VI) as well as the first division of
the trigeminal nerve (V
1
).
On rare occasions, a meningioma may first
present symptoms of increased intracranial
pressure or even impaired level of conscious-
ness. Acute presentation with impairment of
consciousness may also occur with hemorrhage
into a meningioma. Fortunately, this condition
is rare, involving only 1% to 2% of meningio-
mas, and may suggest a more malignant phe-
notype.
46
In such cases, the tumor typically has
reached sufficient size to cause diencephalic
compression or herniation. There is often con-
siderable edema of the adjacent brain, which
may be due in part to the leakage of blood ves-
sels in the tumor or to production by the tumor
of angiogenic factors.
47
Treatment with corti-
costeroids reduces the edema and may be life-
saving while awaiting a definitive surgical pro-
cedure.
On CT scanning, meningiomas are typically
isodense with brain, although they may have
areas of calcification. On MRI scan, a typical
meningioma is hypointense or isointense on
T1-weighted MRI and usually hypointense on
T2. In either imaging mode, the tumor uni-
formly and intensely enhances with contrast
unless it is heavily calcified, a situation where
the CT scan may give more accurate informa-
tion. The CT scan may also help in identifying
bone erosion or hyperostosis, the latter rather
characteristic of meningiomas. Meningiomas
typically have an enhancing dural tail that
spreads from the body of the tumor along the
dura, a finding less common in other dural tu-
mors. The dural tail is not tumor, but a hyper-
vascular response of the dura to the tumor.
48
Dural malignant metastases and hematopoi-
etic tumors grow more rapidly than meningio-
mas and cause more underlying brain edema.
Thus, they are more likely to cause alterations of
consciousness and, if not detected and treated
early enough, cerebral herniation. Breast and
prostate cancer and M4-type acute myelomo-
nocytic leukemia have a particular predilection
for the dura, and that may be the only site of
metastasis in an otherwise successfully treated
patient. CT and MRI scans may be similar to
those of meningioma, the diagnosis being esta-
blished only by surgery.
PITUITARY TUMORS
Tumors of the pituitary fossa are outside the
brain and its coverings, separated from the sub-
arachnoid space by the diaphragma sellae, a
portion of the dura that covers the pituitary fossa
but that contains an opening for the pituitary
stalk. Pituitary tumors may cause alterations of
consciousness, either by causing endocrine fail-
ure (see Chapter 5) or by hemorrhage into the
pituitary tumor, so-called pituitary apoplexy.
49
Pituitary adenomas typically cause symptoms
by growing out of the pituitary fossa. Because
the optic chiasm overlies the pituitary fossa,
the most common finding is bitemporal hemi-
anopsia. If the tumor extends laterally through
the wall of the sella turcica into the cavern-
ous sinus, there may be impairment of cranial
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
127
nerves III, IV, VI, or V1. In some cases, pituitary
tumors may achieve a very large size by supra-
sellar extension. These tumors compress the
overlying hypothalamus and basal forebrain and
may extend up between the frontal lobes or
backward down the clivus. Such tumors may
present primarily with prefrontal signs, or signs
of increased ICP, but they occasionally present
with impairment of consciousness.
The most common endocrine presentation in
women is amenorrhea and in some galactorrhea
due to high prolactin secretion. Prolactin is the
only pituitary hormone under inhibitory con-
trol; if a pituitary tumor damages the pituitary
stalk, other pituitary hormones fall to basal lev-
els, but prolactin levels rise. Most pituitary ad-
enomas are nonsecreting tumors, but some
pituitary tumors may secrete anterior pituitary
hormones, resulting in Cushing’s syndrome (if
the tumor secretes adrenocorticotropic hor-
mone [ACTH]), hyperthyroidism (if it secretes
thyroid-stimulating hormone [TSH]), galactor-
rhea/amenorrhea (if it secretes prolactin), or
acromegaly (if it secretes growth hormone).
Pituitary adenomas may outgrow their blood
supply and undergo spontaneous infarction or
hemorrhage. Pituitary apoplexy
49
presents with
the sudden onset of severe headache, signs of
local compression of the optic chiasm, and some-
times the nerves of the cavernous sinus.
50,51
There may be subarachnoid blood and there
often is impairment of consciousness. It is not
clear if the depressed level of consciousness is
due to the compression of the overlying hypo-
thalamus, the release of subarachnoid blood (see
below), or the increase in intracranial pressure.
If there are cranial nerve signs, pituitary apo-
plexy is often sufficiently characteristic to be
diagnosed clinically, but if the main symptoms
are due to subarachnoid hemorrhage, it may be
confused with meningitis or meningoencepha-
litis
52
; the correct diagnosis is easily confirmed
by MRI or CT scan (Figure 4–3). If the tumor
is large, it typically requires surgical interven-
tion. However, subarachnoid hemorrhage can
be treated conservatively. The hemorrhage may
destroy the tumor; careful follow-up will deter-
mine whether there is remaining tumor that
continues to endanger the patient.
Craniopharyngiomas are epithelial neo-
plasms that are thought to arise from a remnant
of Rathke’s pouch, the embryologic origin of
the anterior pituitary gland.
53
The typical pre-
sentation is similar to that of a pituitary tumor,
but craniopharyngiomas are often cystic and
may rupture, releasing thick fluid into the sub-
arachnoid space that may cause a chemical
meningitis (see below). Craniopharyngiomas
are more common in childhood, but there is a
second peak in the seventh decade of life.
54
Figure 4–3. Images from a patient with pituitary apoplexy. This 63-year-old man had a severe headache with sudden onset
of left III and IV nerve palsies. In A, the examiner is holding the left eye open because of ptosis, and the patient is trying to
look to his right. An MRI scan, B, shows a hemorrhage (bright white on T1 imaging) into a large pituitary tumor that is
invading the left cavernous sinus (arrow). The tumor abuts the optic chiasm. In pituitary apoplexy, there may be sudden
visual loss in either or both eyes if the optic nerves are compressed, or in a bitemporal pattern if the chiasm is compressed,
as well as impairment of some combination of cranial nerves III, IV, VI, and V
1
.
128
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
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