hemorrhages, hemiparesis or aphasia may or may not be present, hemisensory
changes rare. Neck stiff within 24 hours. Bloody spinal fluid.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
139
cerebral cortex, the hemorrhages are typically
lobar (i.e., into a specific lobe of the cerebral
cortex).
111
The arteries that hemorrhage tend
to be small vessels, which seal spontaneously,
so that the patient usually survives but may have
multiple recurrences in later years.
112
Acute
onset of focal hemispheric signs and a head-
ache are the most common presentation. As
with end artery hemorrhages, the severity of
the initial presentation often is misleading, and
as the hemorrhage is resorbed, there may be
much greater return of function than in a pa-
tient with a similarly placed infarction. Gradi-
ent echo MRI may reveal additional areas of
small, subclinical cortical and subcortical hem-
orrhage.
113
Mycotic aneurysms are typically seen in the
setting of a patient who has subacute bacterial
endocarditis.
114
Infected emboli that reach the
brain lodge in small penetrating arteries in the
white matter just deep to the cerebral cortex.
The wall of the blood vessel is colonized by
bacteria, resulting in aneurysmal dilation sev-
eral millimeters in diameter. These aneurysms,
which may be visualized on cerebral angiog-
raphy, may be multiple. Because there may
be multiple mycotic aneurysms, and to elimi-
nate an arteriovenous malformation or saccular
aneurysm as the source, an angiogram is gener-
ally necessary. Unruptured mycotic aneurysms
are treated by antibiotics, but ruptured aneu-
rysms may require endovascular or open surgi-
cal intervention.
115
Vascular malformations may occur in any
location in the brain. They range from small
cavernous angiomas to large arteriovenous mal-
formations that are life threatening. MRI iden-
tifies many more cavernous angiomas than are
seen on conventional arteriography or CT scan-
ning. The abnormal vessels in these malfor-
mations are thin-walled, low-pressure and low-
flow venous channels. As a result, cavernous
angiomas bleed easily, but rarely are life threat-
ening. Cavernous angiomas of the brainstem
may cause coma if they hemorrhage and have
a tendency to rebleed.
116
They can often be re-
moved successfully.
117
Radiosurgery may also
reduce the risk of hemorrhage, but can cause
local edema or even hemorrhage acutely.
118,119
Complex
arteriovenous
malformations
(AVMs) contain large arterial feeding vessels
and are often devastating when they bleed.
120
Although somewhat less likely to cause im-
mediate death than are saccular aneurysms,
arteriovenous malformations may be much
harder to treat and bleeding may recur multi-
ple times with gradually worsening outcome.
AVMs may also cause symptoms by inducing
epilepsy, or by causing a vascular steal from
surrounding brain. AVMs that come to atten-
tion without hemorrhage have about a 2% to
4% per year chance of bleeding, but those that
have previously bled have a much higher risk.
AVMs are typically treated by a combination of
endovascular occlusion of the arterial supply
followed, if necessary, by surgery, although
radiosurgery may also shrink AVMs in inac-
cessible regions.
Hemorrhage into a tumor typically occurs in
the setting of a patient with known metasta-
tic cancer. However, in some cases, the hem-
orrhage may be the first sign of the tumor. A
higher percentage of metastatic melanoma, thy-
roid carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, and germ
cell tumors hemorrhage than is true for other
tumor types, but lung cancer is so much more
common than these tumors that it is the sin-
gle most common cause of hemorrhage into
a tumor.
121
Primary brain tumors, particularly
oligodendrogliomas, may also present with a
hemorrhage into the tumor. Because it is often
difficult to see contrast enhancement of the
tumor amidst the initial blood on MRI or CT
scan, it is generally necessary to reimage the
brain several weeks later, when the acute blood
has been resorbed, if no cause of the hemor-
rhage is seen on initial imaging.
Intracerebral Tumors
Both primary and metastatic tumors may in-
vade the brain, resulting in impairment of con-
sciousness.
121,122
Primary tumors are typically
either gliomas or primary CNS lymphomas,
whereas metastatic tumors may come from
many types of systemic cancer. Certain prin-
ciples apply broadly across these classes of
tumors.
Gliomas include both astrocytic tumors and
oligodendrogliomas.
122
Astrocytic tumors typ-
ically invade the substance of the brain, and
in extreme cases (gliomatosis cerebri), may dif-
fusely infiltrate the entire brain.
123
Oligoden-
drogliomas typically are slower growing, and
may contain calcifications visible on CT or MRI.
140
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
They more often present as seizures than as
mass lesions.
124
Astrocytomas typically present
either with seizures or as a mass lesion, with
headache and increased intracranial pressure.
In other cases, the patients may present with
focal or multifocal signs of cerebral dysfunction.
As they enlarge, astrocytomas may outgrow
their blood supply, resulting in internal areas
of necrosis or hemorrhage and formation of
cystic components. Impairment of conscious-
ness is usually due to compression or infiltra-
tion of the diencephalon or herniation. Surpris-
ingly, primary brainstem astrocytomas, which
are typically seen in adolescents and young
adults, cause mainly impairment of cranial
motor nerves while leaving sensory function
and consciousness intact until very late in the
course.
Primary CNS lymphoma (PCNSL) was once
considered to be a rare tumor that was seen
mainly in patients who were immune suppres-
sed; however, PCNSL has increased in frequ-
ency in recent years in patients who are not im-
mune compromised.
123,125
The reason for the
increased incidence is not known. PCNSL be-
haves quite differently from systemic lympho-
mas.
122
The tumors invade the brain much like
astrocytic tumors. They often occur along the
ventricular surfaces and may infiltrate along
white matter tracts. In this respect, primary
CNS lymphomas present in ways that are sim-
ilar to astrocytic tumors. However, it is unusual
for a primary CNS lymphoma to reach so large
a size, or to present by impairment of con-
sciousness, unless it begins in the diencephalon.
Metastatic tumors are most often from lung,
breast, or renal cell cancers or melanoma.
121
Tumors arising below the diaphragm usually
do not invade the brain unless they first cause
pulmonary metastases. Unlike primary brain
tumors, metastases rarely infiltrate the brain,
and can often be shelled out at surgery. Meta-
static tumors usually present either as seizures
or as mass lesions, and often enlarge quite
rapidly. This tendency also results in tumors
outgrowing their blood supply, resulting in in-
farction and hemorrhage (see previous section).
The ease of removing metastatic brain tu-
mors has led to some controversy over the
optimal treatment. Patients who have solitary
metastatic tumors removed on average survive
longer than patients who are treated with cor-
ticosteroids and radiation.
126
Occasional pa-
tients with lung cancer may have long-term
survival and even apparent cure has been re-
ported after removal of a single brain metas-
tasis as well as the lung primary tumor. Pa-
tients with brain tumors frequently suffer
from seizures, but prophylactic administration
of anticonvulsants has not been found to be of
value.
127
Small, surgically inaccessible metas-
tases can be treated by stereotactic radio-
surgery.
128
Brain Abscess and Granuloma
A wide range of microorganisms, including
viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, can in-
vade the brain parenchyma, producing an acute
destructive encephalitis (see page 156). How-
ever, if the immune response is successful in
containing the invader, a more chronic abscess
or granuloma may result, which may act more
as a compressive mass.
A brain abscess is a focal collection of pus
within the parenchyma of the brain. The in-
fective agents reach the brain hematogenously
or by direct extension from an infected con-
tiguous organ (paranasal sinus, middle ear).
129
Most bacterial brain abscesses occur in the
cerebral hemispheres, particularly in the fron-
tal or temporal lobes. In many countries in
Central and South America, cysticercosis is the
most common cause of infectious mass lesions
in the cerebral hemispheres. However, cysti-
cercosis typically presents as seizures, and only
occasionally as a mass lesion.
130
In countries in
which sheep herding is a major activity, echino-
coccal (hydatid) cyst must also be considered,
although these can usually be recognized because
they are more cystic in appearance than ab-
scesses on CT or MRI scan.
131
Patients with
HIV infection present a special challenge in the
diagnosis of coma, as they may have a much
wider array of cerebral infectious lesions and
are also disposed to primary CNS lymphoma.
However, toxoplasmosis is so common in this
group of patients that most clinicians begin with
2 weeks of therapy for that organism.
132
When
the appearance on scan is unusual, though,
early biopsy is often indicated to establish the
cause of the lesion(s) and optimal mode of
treatment.
Other organisms may cause chronic infec-
tion resulting in formation of granulomas that
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
141
may reach sufficient size to act as a mass lesion.
These include tuberculomas in tuberculosis,
torulomas in cryptococcal infection, and gum-
mas in syphilis.
Because the symptoms are mainly due to
brain compression, the clinical symptoms of
brain abscess are similar to those of brain neo-
plasms, except they usually evolve more rapidly
(Table 4–6).
Headache, focal neurologic signs, and sei-
zures are relatively common. Fever and nuchal
rigidity are generally present only during the
early encephalitic phase of the infection, and
are uncommon in encapsulated brain abscesses.
The diagnosis may be suspected in a patient with
a known source of infection or an immunosup-
pressed patient.
On imaging with either CT or MRI, the en-
hanced rim of an abscess is usually thinner and
more regular than that of a tumor and may be
very thin where it abuts the ventricle, some-
times leading to ventricular rupture (Figure
4–7). The infective nidus is often surrounded by
more vasogenic edema than usually surrounds
brain neoplasms. Diffusion-weighted images
indicate restricted diffusion within the abscess,
which can be distinguished from the cystic ar-
eas within tumors, which represent areas of
infarction. The presence of higher levels of
amino acids within the abscess on magnetic
resonance spectroscopy (MRS) may also be
helpful in differentiating the pathologies (Table
4–7).
If the lesion is small and the organism can
be identified, antibiotics can treat the abscess
successfully. Larger lesions require drainage or
excision.
INFRATENTORIAL COMPRESSIVE
LESIONS
The same mass lesions that affect the supra-
tentorial space can also occur infratentorially
(i.e., in the posterior fossa). Hence, while both
the focal symptoms caused by posterior fossa
masses and the symptoms of herniation dif-
fer substantially from those of supratentorial
masses, the pathophysiologic mechanisms are
similar. For that reason, we will focus in this
section on the ways in which posterior fossa
compressive lesions differ from those that oc-
cur supratentorially. Depending on the site of
the lesion, compressive lesions of the posterior
fossa are more likely to cause cerebellar signs
and eye movement disorders and less likely
to cause isolated hemiplegia. Herniation may
be either downward as the cerebellar tonsils
are forced through the foramen magnum or
upward as the cerebellar vermis pushes the up-
Table 4–6 Presenting Signs and
Symptoms in 968 Patients With
Brain Abscess
Sign or Symptom
Frequency
Range
Mean
Headache
55%–97%
77%
Depressed consciousness
28%–91%
53%
Fever
32%–62%
53%
Nausea with vomiting
35%–85%
51%
Papilledema
9%–56%
39%
Hemiparesis
23%–44%
36%
Seizures
13%–35%
24%
Neck stiffness
5%–41%
23%
From Kastenbauer et al.,
133
with permission.
Figure 4–7. A 49-year-old man with AIDS was admitted
for evaluation of headache, nausea, and bilateral weak-
ness and intermittent focal motor seizures. MRI showed
multiple ring-enhancing lesions. Note that the smooth,
contrast-enhancing wall of this right parietal lesion is typ-
ical of an abscess. He was treated with broad spectrum
antibiotics and improved.
142
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
per brainstem through the tentorium, or usu-
ally both.
EPIDURAL AND DURAL MASSES
Epidural Hematoma
Epidural hematomas of the posterior fossa are
much less common than their supratentorial
counterparts, representing about 10% of all
epidural hematomas.
134
Posterior fossa epi-
dural hematomas typically follow fracture of
the occipital bone; they are usually arterial, but
may occasionally result from venous bleed-
ing.
135
The hematomas are bilateral in about
one-third of cases.
134
Patients present with headache, nausea and
vomiting, and loss of consciousness.
136,137
Neuro-ophthalmologic signs are relatively un-
common, usually consisting of abducens pare-
sis due to the increased intracranial pressure.
Occasionally a stiff neck is seen as an early sign
of tonsillar herniation.
A typical lucid interval occurs in only a mi-
nority of patients
138
: after initial injury, those
patients either continue to be alert or rapidly
recover after a brief loss of consciousness only
to subsequently, after minutes to days, first be-
come lethargic and then lapse into coma. With-
out treatment death ensues from acute respi-
ratory failure (tonsillar herniation). Even those
patients with a lucid interval suffer headache
and often cerebellar ataxia after the injury. If
not treated, symptoms progress to vertigo, stiff
neck, ataxia, nausea, and drowsiness.
It is important to identify an occipital frac-
ture even in the absence of a hematoma be-
cause of the possibility of delayed develop-
ment of an epidural hematoma.
134
If a fracture
crosses the transverse sinus, it may cause throm-
bosis of that vessel, causing a supratentorial
hemorrhagic infarct or increased ICP. Because
of the small amount of space in the posterior
fossa and the narrow exit foramina of CSF
(Sylvian aqueduct and fourth ventricle), ob-
structive hydrocephalus is often an early prob-
lem that may require emergent therapy.
139
About one-half of patients have evidence of
other injury, such as cerebellar hemorrhage or
supratentorial bleeding.
140
Most patients with posterior fossa epidural
hematomas are treated surgically,
134
although
alert patients with small lesions may be treated
conservatively.
141
A hematoma with a volume
under 10 mL, a thickness under 15 mm, and
a midline shift of no more than 5 mm may be
treated conservatively but requires careful
watching for increase in the size of the lesion.
In the supratentorial space, epidural hemato-
mas with volumes up to 30 mL may be treated
conservatively.
141
The availability of rapid
Table 4–7 Imaging Findings in Brain Abscess
Finding
CT
MR*
Sensitivity
Capsule
Isodense
T1WI: Isointense to hyperintense
Plain: MR>CT
Enhances T2WI: Hypointense
to hyperintense
CE: MR>CT
Vasogenic edema
Hypodense
T1WI: Hypointense
T2WI: Hyperintense
Plain: MR>CT
Abscess contents
Hypodense
T1WI: Hypointense
T2WI: Hyperintense
MRS: Amino acid, lactate,
acetate, succinate, and
pyruvate peaks
DWI: Bright (white)
ADC: Dark (black)
Plain: MR ¼ CT
ADC, apparent diffusion coefficient map; CE, contrast enhanced; CT, computed tomography; DWI, diffusion-weighted
image; MR, magnetic resonance spectroscopy; T1WI, T1-weighted image; T2WI, T2-weighted image.
*Intensity relative to normal brain.
From Zimmerman et al.,
98
with permission.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
143
imaging has substantially reduced the mortal-
ity from about 25% in older series
142
to about
5% in more modern series.
134
Most current
mortality and morbidity is related not to the
hematoma, but to other brain injuries sustained
in the trauma.
Epidural Abscess
Epidural abscesses in the posterior fossa are
rare, representing only nine out of almost
4,000 patients with intracranial infections in
one series.
143
Most were complications of ear
infections and mastoiditis. Unlike epidural he-
matomas, fever and meningismus, as well as
evidence of a chronic draining ear, are com-
mon. Focal neurologic signs are similar to those
of epidural hematomas, but develop over days
to weeks rather than hours. Cerebellar signs
occur in a minority of patients. The CT scan
demonstrates a hypodense or isodense extra-
axial mass with a contrast-enhancing rim. Hy-
drocephalus is common. Diffusion-weighted
MRI identifies restricted diffusion, as in su-
pratentorial empyemas and abscesses.
41
The
prognosis is generally good with evacuation of
the abscess and treatment with antimicrobials,
except in those patients suffering venous si-
nus thrombosis as a result of the infection.
Dural and Epidural Tumors
As with supratentorial lesions, both primary
and metastatic tumors can involve the dura of
the posterior fossa. Meningioma is the most
common primary tumor.
144
Meningiomas usu-
ally arise from the tentorium or other dural
structures, but can occur in the posterior fossa
without dural attachment.
145
Meningiomas
produce their symptoms both by direct com-
pression and by causing hydrocephalus. How-
ever, because they grow slowly, focal neuro-
logic symptoms are common and the diagnosis
is generally made long before they cause al-
terations of consciousness. Dural metastases
from myelocytic leukemia, so-called chloromas
or granulocytic sarcomas,
146
have a particular
predilection for the posterior fossa. Although
more rapidly growing than primary tumors,
these tumors rarely cause alterations of con-
sciousness. Other metastatic tumors to the pos-
terior fossa meninges may cause symptoms by
involving cranial nerves.
SUBDURAL POSTERIOR FOSSA
COMPRESSIVE LESIONS
Subdural hematomas of the posterior fossa
are rare. Only 1% of traumatic acute subdural
hematomas are found in the posterior fossa.
147
Chronic subdural hematomas in the posterior
fossa, without a clear history of head trauma,
are even rarer. A review in 2002 reported only
15 previous cases, including those patients
taking anticoagulants.
148
Patients with acute
subdural hematomas can be divided into those
who are stuporous or comatose on admission
and those who are alert. Patients with chronic
subdural hematomas, many of whom had been
on anticoagulation therapy or have sustained
very mild head trauma, usually present with
headache, vomiting, and cerebellar signs. The
diagnosis is made by CT or MRI and treatment
is usually surgical. Stupor or coma portends a
poor outcome, as do the CT findings of oblit-
erated basal cisterns and fourth ventricle with
resultant hydrocephalus.
147
Subdural Empyema
Posterior fossa subdural empyemas are rare.
149
They constitute less than 2% of all subdural
empyemas.
143
Like their epidural counterparts,
ear infections and mastoiditis are the major
cause. Headache, lethargy, and meningismus
are common symptoms. Ataxia and nystagmus
are less common.
143
The diagnosis is made by
CT, which reveals a hypo- or isodense extra-
axial collection with enhancement. On MRI,
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