in the tumor. Patients present with headache,
dizziness, and ataxia. Because the symptoms are
rarely acute, MRI scanning can usually be ob-
tained. The contrast-enhanced image will not
only identify the enhancing cerebellar tumor,
but will also inform the physician whether there
are other metastatic lesions and whether hydro-
cephalus is present. The treatment of a single
metastasis in the cerebellum is generally surgi-
cal or, in some instances, by radiosurgery.
128
Multiple metastases are treated with radiation
therapy.
Pontine Hemorrhage
Although pontine hemorrhage compresses the
brainstem, it causes damage as much by tis-
sue destruction as by mass effect (Figure 4–9).
Hemorrhage into the pons typically produces
Table 4–11 Clinical Features of Cerebellar Abscesses
Cases Before 1975
(N ¼ 47)*
Cases After 1975
(N ¼ 77)
{
No.
%
No.
%
Symptoms
Headache
47
100
74
96
Vomiting
39
83
Drowsiness
32
66
Unsteadiness
23
49
Confusion
16
34
Ipsilateral limb weakness
6
13
Visual disturbances
4
8
Blackout
3
6
Signs
Nystagmus
35
74
Meningismus
31
66
59
77
Cerebellar signs
27
57
40
52
Papilledema
21
45
Fever
16
34
70
90
Sixth nerve palsy
2
4
7
15
Depressed consciousness
32
66
44
57
*Data from Shaw and Russell.
175
{
Data from Nadvi et al.
173
150
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
the characteristic pattern of sudden onset of
unconsciousness with tiny but reactive pupils
(although it may require a magnifying glass or
the plus 20 lens of the ophthalmoscope to vi-
sualize the light response). Most patients have
impairment of oculocephalic responses, and
eyes may show skew deviation, ocular bobbing,
or one of its variants. Patients may have decer-
ebrate rigidity, or they may demonstrate flac-
cid quadriplegia. We have seen one patient in
whom a hematoma that dissected along the
medial longitudinal fasciculus, and caused ini-
tial vertical and adduction ophthalmoparesis,
was followed about an hour later by loss of con-
sciousness (see Patient 2–1). However, in most
patients, the onset of coma is so sudden that
there is not even a history of a complaint of
headache.
180
SUPRATENTORIAL DESTRUCTIVE
LESIONS CAUSING COMA
The most common supratentorial destructive
lesions causing coma result from either anoxia
or ischemia, although the damage may occur
due to trauma, infection, or the associated im-
mune response. To cause coma, a supraten-
torial lesion must either involve bilateral cor-
tical or subcortical structures multifocally or
diffusely or affect the thalamus bilaterally.
Following recovery from the initial insult, the
Figure 4–9. A pair of scans without contrast from two patients with pontine strokes. (A) A noncontrast computed to-
mography scan demonstrating a small hemorrhage into the right pontine base and tegmentum in a 55-year-old man with
hypertension, who presented with left hemiparesis and dysarthria. He was treated by blood pressure control and improved
markedly. (B) A diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of a medial pontine infarct in a 77-year-old
man with hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and prior history of coronary artery disease. He presented with left hemiparesis,
dysarthria, and diplopia. On examination, there was right lateral gaze paresis and inability to adduct either eye on lateral
gaze (one-and-a-half syndrome). There was extensive irregularity of the vertebrobasilar vessels on MR angiogram. He was
treated with anticoagulants and improved slowly, although with significant residual diplopia and left hemiparesis at discharge.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
151
coma is usually short lived, the patient either
awakening, entering a persistent vegetative
state within a few days or weeks, or dying (see
Chapter 9).
VASCULAR CAUSES
OF SUPRATENTORIAL
DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS
Diffuse anoxia and ischemia, including carbon
monoxide poisoning and multiple cerebral em-
boli from fat embolism
181
or cardiac surgery,
182
are discussed in detail in Chapter 5. We will
concentrate here on focal ischemic lesions that
can cause coma.
Carotid Ischemic Lesions
Unilateral hemispheric infarcts due to carotid
or middle cerebral occlusion may cause a quiet,
apathetic, or even confused appearance, as the
remaining cognitive systems in the patient’s
functional hemisphere attempt to deal with the
sudden change in cognitive perspective on the
world. This appearance is also seen in patients
during a Wada test, when a barbiturate is in-
jected into one carotid artery to determine the
lateralization of language function prior to sur-
gery. The appearance of the patient may be
deceptive to the uninitiated examiner; acute
loss of language with a dominant hemisphere
lesion may make the patient unresponsive to
verbal command, and acute lesions of the non-
dominant hemisphere often cause an ‘‘eye-
opening apraxia,’’ in which the patient keeps his
or her eyes closed, even though awake. How-
ever, a careful neurologic examination demon-
strates that despite the appearance of reduced
responsiveness, true coma rarely occurs in such
cases.
183
In the rare cases where unilateral carotid oc-
clusion does cause loss of consciousness, there
is nearly always an underlying vascular abnor-
mality that explains the observation.
184,185
For
example, there may be pre-existing vascular
anomaly or occlusion of the contralateral ca-
rotid artery, so that both cerebral hemispheres
may be supplied, across the anterior commu-
nicating artery, by one carotid. In the absence
of such a situation, unilateral carotid occlusion
does not cause acute loss of consciousness.
Patients with large hemispheric infarcts are
nearly always hemiplegic at onset, and if in
the dominant hemisphere, aphasic as well. The
lesion can be differentiated from a cerebral
hemorrhage by CT scan that, in the case of in-
farct, may initially appear normal or show only
slight edema with loss of gray-white matter
distinction (Figure 4–10). MRI scans, however,
show marked hyperintensity on the diffusion-
weighted image, indicating ischemia. Symptoms
may be relieved by early use of thrombolytic
agents,
186
but only if the stroke is identified and
treated within a few hours of onset. There are
currently no neuroprotective agents that have
demonstrated effectiveness. Patients with mas-
sive infarcts should be given good support-
ive care to ensure adequate blood flow, oxygen,
and nutrients to the brain, but hyperglyce-
mia should be avoided as it worsens the out-
come.
187,188
These patients are best treated in
a stroke unit
189
; they should be watched care-
fully for the development of brain edema and
increased ICP.
Although impairment of consciousness is
rare as an immediate result of carotid occlusion,
it may occur 2 to 4 days after acute infarction in
the carotid territory, as edema of the infarcted
hemisphere causes compression of the other
hemisphere and the diencephalon, and may
even result in uncal or central herniation.
186,190
This problem is presaged by increasing leth-
argy and pupillary changes suggesting either
central or uncal herniation. Many patients who
survive the initial infarct succumb during this
period. The swelling does not respond to cor-
ticosteroids as it is cytotoxic in origin. It may
be diminished transiently with mannitol or hy-
pertonic saline,
191
but these agents soon equil-
ibrate across the blood-brain barrier and cease
to draw fluid out of the brain, if they ever
did
192,193
(see Chapter 7). Surgical resection of
the infarcted tissue may improve survival,
194,195
but this approach often results in a severely
impaired outcome. Decompressive craniotomy
(removing bone overlying the damaged hemi-
sphere) may increase survival, but many of the
patients have a poor neurologic outcome.
196
Distal Basilar Occlusion
Distal basilar occlusion typically presents with
a characteristic set of findings (the ‘‘top of the
basilar syndrome’’) that can include impairment
152
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
of consciousness.
197
The basilar arteries give
rise to the posterior cerebral arteries, which
perfuse the caudal medial part of the hemi-
spheres. The posterior cerebral arteries also
give rise to posterior choroidal arteries, which
perfuse the caudal part of the hippocampal
formation, the globus pallidus, and the lateral
geniculate nucleus.
198
In addition, thalamoper-
forating arteries originating from the basilar
tip, posterior cerebral arteries, and posterior
communicating arteries supply the caudal part
of the thalamus.
199
Occlusion of the distal pos-
terior cerebral arteries causes bilateral blind-
ness, paresis, and memory loss. Some patients
Figure 4–10. Development of cerebral
edema and herniation in a patient with
a left middle cerebral artery infarct. A
90-year-old woman with hypertension
and diabetes had sudden onset of global
aphasia, right hemiparesis, and left gaze
preference. (A) A diffusion-weighted
magnetic resonance imaging scan and
(B) an apparent diffusion coefficient
(ADC) map, which identify the area of
acute infarction as including both the an-
terior and middle cerebral artery ter-
ritories. The initial computed tomogra-
phy scan (C, D) identified a dense
left middle cerebral artery (arrow), indi-
cating thrombosis, and swelling of the
sulci on the left compared to the right,
consistent with the region of restricted
diffusion shown on the ADC map. By
48 hours after admission, there was
massive left cerebral edema, with the
medial temporal lobe herniation com-
pressing the brainstem (arrow E) and
subfalcine herniation of the left cingu-
late gyrus (arrow in F) and massive
midline shift and compression of the
left lateral ventricle. The patient died
shortly after this scan.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
153
who are blind deny their condition (Anton’s
syndrome). However, the infarction does not
cause loss of consciousness. On the other hand,
more proximal occlusion of the basilar artery
that reduces perfusion of the junction of the
midbrain with the posterior thalamus and
hypothalamus bilaterally can cause profound
coma.
197,200–202
Isolated thalamic infarction can cause a wide
variety of cognitive problems, depending on
which feeding vessels are occluded (Table 4–
14). Castaigne and colleagues
203
and others
204
have provided a comprehensive analysis of
clinical syndromes related to occlusion of each
vessel (Table 4–12). Surprisingly, even bilateral
thalamic injuries are typically not associated with
a depressed level of consciousness unless there
is some involvement of the paramedian mes-
encephalon.
205,206
Most such patients become
more responsive within a few days, although the
prognosis for full recovery is poor.
207
Venous Sinus Thrombosis
The venous drainage of the brain is susceptible
to thrombosis in the same way as other venous
circulations.
208
Most often, this occurs during a
hypercoagulable state, related either to dehy-
dration, infection, or childbirth, or associated
with a systemic neoplasm.
209,210
The throm-
bosis may begin in a draining cerebral vein, or
it may involve mainly one or more of the dural
sinuses. The most common of these conditions
is thrombosis of the superior sagittal sinus.
210
Such patients complain of a vertex headache,
which is usually quite severe. There is in-
creased ICP, which may be as high as 60 cm of
water on lumbar puncture and often causes
papilledema. The CSF pressure may be suffi-
ciently high to impair brain perfusion. There is
also an increase in venous back-pressure in the
brain (due to poor venous drainage), and so the
arteriovenous pressure gradient is further re-
duced, and cerebral perfusion is at risk. This
causes local edema and sometimes frank in-
farction. For example, in sagittal sinus throm-
bosis, the impaired venous outflow from the
paramedian walls of the cerebral hemisphere
may result in bilateral lower extremity hy-
perreflexia and extensor plantar responses, and
sometimes even paraparesis. Extravasation into
the infarcted tissue, due to continued high
perfusion pressure, causes local hemorrhage,
hemorrhagic CSF, and seizures.
Thrombosis of the lateral sinus causes pain
in the region behind the ipsilateral ear. The
thrombosis may be associated with mastoiditis,
in which case the pain due to the sinus throm-
bosis may be overlooked. If the outflow through
the other lateral sinus remains patent, there
may be little or no change in CSF pressure.
However, the lateral sinuses are often asym-
metric, and if the dominant one is occluded,
there may not be sufficient venous outflow
from the intracranial space. This may cause
impairment of CSF outflow as well, a condition
that is sometimes known as ‘‘otitic hydro-
cephalus.’’ There typically is also venous stasis
in the adjacent ventrolateral wall of the tem-
poral lobe. Infarction in this area may pro-
duce little in the way of focal signs, but hem-
orrhage into the infarcted tissue may produce
seizures.
Thrombosis of superficial cortical veins may
be associated with local cortical dysfunction,
but more often may present with seizures and
focal headache.
211
Thrombosis of deep cere-
bral veins, such as the internal cerebral veins
or vein of Galen, or even in the straight sinus
generally presents as a rapidly progressive syn-
drome with headache, nausea and vomiting,
and then impaired consciousness progressing
to coma.
212,213
Impaired blood flow in the thal-
amus and upper midbrain may lead to venous
infarction, hemorrhage, and coma. Venous
thrombosis associated with coma generally has
a poor prognosis, whereas awake and alert pa-
tients usually do well.
210
Venous occlusion is suggested when the
pattern of infarction does not match an arterial
distribution, especially if the infarct contains a
region of hemorrhage. However, in many cases
of venous sinus thrombosis, there will be little,
if any, evidence of focal brain injury. In those
cases, the main clues will often be elevated
pressure with or without red cells in the CSF.
Sometimes lack of blood flow in the venous
sinus system will be apparent even on routine
CT or MRI scan, although often it is not clearly
evident. Either CT or MR venogram can eas-
ily make the diagnosis, but neither is a rou-
tine study, and unless the examining physi-
cian thinks of the diagnosis and asks for the
study, the diagnosis may be overlooked. Al-
though no controlled trials prove efficacy,
214
154
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Table 4–12 Thalamic Arterial Supply and Principal Clinical Features of
Focal Infarction
Thalamic Blood Vessel
Nuclei Irrigated
Clinical Features Reported
Tuberothalamic artery (arises
from middle third of posterior
communicating artery)
Reticular, intralaminar, VA,
rostral VL, ventral pole of
MD, anterior nuclei (AD,
AM, AV), ventral internal
medullary lamina, ventral
amygdalofugal pathway,
mamillothalamic tract
Fluctuating arousal and orientation
Impaired learning, memory,
autobiographic memory
Superimposition of temporally
unrelated information
Personality changes,
apathy, abulia
Executive failure, perseveration
True to hemisphere: language if VL
involved on left; hemispatial
neglect if right sided
Emotional expression, acalculia,
apraxia
Paramedian artery
(arises from P1 segment
of posterior cerebral artery)
MD, intralaminar (CM, Pf,
CL), posteromedial VL,
ventromedial pulvinar,
paraventricular, LD,
dorsal internal medullary
lamina
Decreased arousal (coma vigil
if bilateral)
Impaired learning and
memory, confabulation, temporal
disorientation, poor autobio-
graphic memory
Aphasia if left sided, spatial deficits
if right sided
Altered social skills and
personality, including
apathy, aggression, agitation
Inferolateral artery
(arises from P2 segment
of posterior cerebral artery)
Principal inferolateral branches
Ventroposterior complexes:
VPM, VPL, VP1
Ventral lateral nucleus,
ventral (motor) part
Sensory loss (variable extent,
all modalities)
Hemiataxia
Hemiparesis
Postlesion pain syndrome
(Dejerine-Roussy): right
hemisphere predominant
Medial branches
Medial geniculate
Auditory consequences
Inferolateral pulvinar branches
Rostral and lateral
pulvinar, LD nucleus
Behavioral
Posterior choroidal artery
(arises from P2 segment of
posterior cerebral artery)
Lateral branches
LGN, LD, LP, inferolateral
parts of pulvinar
Visual field loss (hemianopsia,
quadrantanopsia)
Medial branches
MGN, posterior parts of CM
and CL, pulvinar
Variable sensory loss, weakness,
aphasia, memory impairment,
dystonia, hand tremor
Modified from Schmahmann,
197
with permission.
155
anticoagulation and thrombolytic therapy are
believed to be effective
210,215
; some thrombi
recanalize spontaneously.
Vasculitis
Vasculitis affecting the brain either can occur
as part of a systemic disorder
216
(e.g., polyar-
teritis nodosa, Behc¸et’s syndrome) or can be
restricted to the nervous system (e.g., CNS
granulomatous angiitis).
217
The disorder can
affect large or small vessels. Vasculitis causes
impairment of consciousness by ischemia or
infarction that either affects the hemispheres
diffusely or the brainstem arousal systems. The
diagnosis can be suspected in a patient with
headache, fluctuating consciousness, and focal
neurologic signs (Table 4–13). Granulomatous
angiitis, the most common CNS vasculitis, is
discussed here. Other CNS vasculopathies are
discussed in Chapter 5 (see page 273).
The CSF may contain an increased number
of lymphocytes or may be normal. The CT scan
may likewise be normal, but MRI usually dem-
onstrates areas of ischemia or infarction. Mag-
netic resonance angiography may demonstrate
multifocal narrowing of small blood vessels or
may be normal. High-resolution arteriography
is more likely to demonstrate small vessel ab-
normalities. A definitive diagnosis can be made
only by biopsy. Even then, because of sampling
error, biopsy may not establish the diagno-
sis. The treatment depends on the cause of
vasculitis; most of the disorders are immune
mediated and are treated by immunosuppres-
sion, usually with corticosteroids and cyclo-
phosphamide.
218
INFECTIONS AND
INFLAMMATORY CAUSES
OF SUPRATENTORIAL
DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS
Viral Encephalitis
Although bacteria, fungi, and parasites can all
invade the brain (encephalitis) with or without
involvement of the meninges (meningoenceph-
alitis), they tend to form localized infections.
Viral encephalitis, by distinction, is often wide-
spread and bilateral, and hence coma is a com-
mon feature. The organisms destroy tissue both
by direct invasion and as a result of the im-
mune response to the infectious agent. They
may further impair neurologic function as toxins
Table 4–13 Symptoms and Signs in 78 Reported Cases of
Patients With Documented Central Nervous System
Granulomatous Angitis
Symptom/Sign
No. at
Onset
Total No. Recorded
During the Course
of the Disease
Mental changes
45
61
Headache
42
42
Coma
0
42
Focal weakness
12
33
Seizure
9
18
Fever
16
16
Ataxia
7
11
Aphasia
4
10
Visual changes (diplopia, amaurosis,
and blurring)
7
9
Tetraparesis
0
9
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