diffusion is restricted,
41
unlike tumors or hem-
orrhage. Treatment with drainage and anti-
biotics is usually successful.
Subdural Tumors
Isolated subdural tumors are exceedingly rare.
Meningioma and other tumors of the dura may
invade the subdural space. Subdural metasta-
ses from leukemia or solid tumors rarely occur
in isolation. They can be differentiated from
hematomas and infection on scans by their uni-
form contrast enhancement.
144
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
SUBARACHNOID POSTERIOR
FOSSA LESIONS
Subarachnoid blood, infection, or tumor usually
occurs in the posterior fossa in association with
similar supratentorial lesions. Exceptions in-
clude subdural or parenchymal posterior fossa
lesions that rupture into the subarachnoid space
and posterior fossa subarachnoid hemorrhage.
150
Posterior fossa subarachnoid hemorrhages are
caused either by aneurysms or dissection of
vertebral or basilar arteries or their branches.
Unruptured aneurysms of the basilar and ver-
tebral arteries sometimes grow to a size of sev-
eral centimeters and act like posterior fossa ex-
tramedullary tumors. However, they generally
do not cause coma unless they rupture. When
a vertebrobasilar aneurysm ruptures, the event
is characteristically abrupt and frequently is
marked by the complaint of sudden weak legs,
collapse, and coma. Most patients also have sud-
den occipital headache, but in contrast with an-
terior fossa aneurysms in which the history of
coma, if present, is usually clear cut, it some-
times is difficult to be certain whether a patient
with a ruptured posterior fossa aneurysm had
briefly lost consciousness or merely collapsed
because of paralysis of the lower extremities.
Ruptured vertebrobasilar aneurysms are often
reported as presenting few clinical signs that
clearly localize the source of the subarachnoid
bleeding to the posterior fossa. In Logue’s 12
patients,
151
four had unilateral sixth nerve weak-
ness (which can occur with any subarachnoid
hemorrhage), one had bilateral sixth nerve weak-
ness, and only two had other cranial nerve ab-
normalities to signify a posterior fossa localiza-
tion. Duvoisin and Yahr
152
reported that only
about one-half of their patients with ruptured
posterior fossa aneurysms had signs that sug-
gested the origin of their bleeding. Jamieson
reported 19 cases with even fewer localizing
signs: five patients suffered third nerve weak-
ness and two had sixth nerve palsies.
153
Our own experience differs somewhat from
the above. We have had eight patients with
ruptured vertebrobasilar aneurysms confirmed
at arteriography or autopsy, and six had pu-
pillary, motor, or oculomotor signs indicating a
posterior fossa lesion (Table 4–8).
The diagnosis is usually obvious on CT.
Blood isolated to the fourth ventricle suggests
a ruptured posterior inferior cerebellar artery
aneurysm.
150
Perimesencephalic hemorrhage
is characterized by subarachnoid blood ac-
cumulating around the midbrain. While this
often presents with a headache and loss of con-
sciousness, it has a relatively benign progno-
sis.
154
Unlike most subarachnoid hemorrhage,
the bleeding is usually venous in origin
155
; ce-
rebral angiograms are negative and bleeding
rarely recurs.
INTRAPARENCHYMAL
POSTERIOR FOSSA MASS
LESIONS
Intraparenchymal mass lesions in the posterior
fossa that cause coma usually are located in the
cerebellum. In part this is because the cere-
bellum occupies a large portion of this com-
partment, but in part because the brainstem is
so small that an expanding mass lesion often
does more damage by tissue destruction than
as a compressive lesion.
Cerebellar Hemorrhage
About 10% of intraparenchymal intracranial
hemorrhages occur in the cerebellum. A cer-
ebellar hemorrhage can cause coma and death
by compressing the brainstem. Increasing num-
bers of reports in recent years indicate that if
the diagnosis is made promptly, many patients
can be treated successfully by evacuating the
clot or removing an associated angioma.
156,157
However, for those patients who are comatose,
mortality is high despite prompt surgical inter-
vention.
156,158
Approximately three-quarters of
patients with cerebellar hemorrhage have hy-
pertension; most of the remaining ones have
Table 4–8 Localizing Signs in Six
Cases of Ruptured Vertebrobasilar
Aneurysms
Occipital headache
5
Skew deviation of the eyes
3
Third nerve paralysis
2
Cerebellar signs
3
Acute paraplegia before loss
of consciousness
2
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
145
cerebellar angiomas or are receiving anticoag-
ulant drugs. In elderly patients, amyloid angio-
pathy may be the culprit.
159
On rare occasions,
a cerebellar hemorrhage may follow a supra-
tentorial craniotomy.
160
Among our own 28 pa-
tients,
161
five had posterior fossa arteriovenous
vascular malformations, one had thrombocyto-
penic purpura, three were normotensive but re-
ceiving anticoagulants, and the remainder, who
ranged between 39 and 83 years of age, had
hypertensive vascular disease. Hemorrhages in
hypertensive patients arise in the neighborhood
of the dentate nuclei; those coming from angi-
omas tend to lie more superficially. Both types
usually rupture into the subarachnoid space
or fourth ventricle and cause coma chiefly by
compressing the brainstem.
Fisher’s paper in 1965
162
did much to stim-
ulate efforts at clinical diagnosis and encour-
aged attempts at successful treatment. Subse-
quent reports from several large centers have
increasingly emphasized that early diagnosis is
critical for satisfactory treatment of cerebel-
lar hemorrhage, and that once patients become
stuporous or comatose, surgical drainage is a
near-hopeless exercise.
156
The most common
initial symptoms of cerebellar hemorrhage are
headaches (most often occipital), nausea and
vomiting, dizziness or vertiginous sensations,
unsteadiness or an inability to walk, dysarthria,
and, less often, drowsiness. Messert and asso-
ciates described two patients who had unilat-
eral eyelid closure contralateral to the cere-
bellar hemorrhage, apparently as an attempt to
prevent diplopia.
163
Patient 4–3, below, is a
typical example.
Patient 4–3
A 55-year-old man with hypertension and a his-
tory of poor medication compliance had sudden
onset of severe occipital headache and nausea
when sitting down with his family to Christmas
dinner. He noticed that he was uncoordinated
when he tried to carve the turkey. When he arrived
in the hospital emergency department he was
unable to sit or stand unaided, and had severe
bilateral ataxia in both upper extremities. He was
a bit drowsy but had full eye movements with end
gaze nystagmus to either side. There was no weak-
ness or change in muscle tone, but tendon reflexes
were brisk, and toes were downgoing. He was sent
for a CT scan, but by the time the scan was finished
the CT technician could no longer arouse him.
The CT scan showed a 5-cm egg-shaped hem-
orrhage into the left cerebellar hemisphere, com-
pressing the fourth ventricle, with hydrocephalus.
By the time the patient returned to the emergency
department he had no oculocephalic responses,
and breathing was ataxic. Shortly afterward, he
had a respiratory arrest and died before the neu-
rosurgical team could take him to the operating
room.
Table 4–9 Presenting Clinical Findings in 72 Patients With
Cerebellar Hemorrhage
Symptoms
No. Patients
(%)
Signs
No. Patients
(%)
Vomiting
58 (81)
Anisocoria
10 (14)
Headache
48 (67)
Pinpoint pupils
4 (6)
Dizziness/vertigo
43 (60)
Abnormal OCR or EOM
23 (32)
Truncal/gait ataxia
40 (56)
Skew deviation
6 (8)
Dysarthria
30 (42)
Nystagmus
24 (33)
Drowsiness
30 (42)
Absent/asymmetric CR
9 (13)
Confusion
8 (11)
Facial paresis
13 (18)
Dysarthria
18 (25)
Limb ataxia
32 (44)
Hemiparesis
8 (11)
Babinski sign
36 (50)
CR, corneal reflex; EOM, extraocular movements; OCR, oculocephalic reflex.
Modified from Fisher et al.
162
146
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Table 4–9 lists the most frequent early
physical signs as recorded in a series of 72 pa-
tients.
164
As Patient 4–3 illustrates, deterioration from
alertness or drowsiness to stupor often comes
over a few minutes, and even brief delays to
carry out radiographic procedures can prove
fatal. Mutism, a finding encountered in chil-
dren after operations that split the inferior
vermis of the cerebellum, occasionally occurs
in adults with cerebellar hemorrhage.
165
Al-
though usually not tested during the rush of
the initial examination, cognitive dysfunction,
including impairment of executive functions,
difficulty with spatial cognition, and language
deficits, as well as affective disorders includ-
ing blunting of affect or disinhibited or inap-
propriate behavior, called the ‘‘cerebellar cog-
nitive affective syndrome,’’
166
are sometimes
present (see also page 306, Chapter 6). Similar
abnormalities may persist if there is damage
to the posterior hemisphere of the cerebellum,
even following successful treatment of cere-
bellar mass lesions.
167
All patients who present to the emergency
room with acute cerebellar signs, particularly
when associated with headache and vomiting,
require an urgent CT. The scan identifies the
hemorrhage and permits assessment of the
degree of compression of the fourth ventricle
and whether there is any complicating hydro-
cephalus. Our experience with acute cerebel-
lar hemorrhage points to a gradation in se-
verity that can be divided roughly into four
relatively distinct clinical patterns. The least
serious form occurs with small hemorrhages,
usually less than 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter by
CT, and includes self-limited, acute unilateral
cerebellar dysfunction accompanied by head-
ache. Without imaging, this disorder undoubt-
edly would go undiagnosed. With larger hema-
tomas, occipital headache is more prominent
and signs of cerebellar or oculomotor dys-
function develop gradually or episodically over
1 to several days. There may be some associ-
ated drowsiness or lethargy. Patients with this
degree of impairment have been reported to
recover spontaneously, particularly from hem-
orrhages measuring less than 3 cm in diameter
by CT. However, the condition requires ex-
tremely careful observation until one is sure
that there is no progression due to edema for-
mation, as patients almost always do poorly if
one waits until coma develops to initiate sur-
gical treatment. The most characteristic and
therapeutically important syndrome of cere-
bellar hemorrhages occurs in individuals who
develop acute or subacute occipital headache,
vomiting, and progressive neurologic impair-
ment including ipsilateral ataxia, nausea, ver-
tigo, and nystagmus. Parenchymal brainstem
signs, such as gaze paresis or facial weakness
on the side of the hematoma, or pyramidal
motor signs develop as a result of brainstem
compression, and hence usually are not seen
until after drowsiness or obtundation is ap-
parent. The appearance of impairment of con-
sciousness mandates emergency intervention
and surgical decompression that can be life-
saving. About one-fifth of patients with cere-
bellar hemorrhage develop early pontine com-
pression with sudden loss of consciousness,
respiratory irregularity, pinpoint pupils, absent
oculovestibular responses, and quadriplegia;
the picture is clinically indistinguishable from
primary pontine hemorrhage and is almost
always fatal.
Kirollos and colleagues have proposed a pro-
tocol based on CT and the patient’s clinical state
to help determine which patients are candidates
for surgical intervention and to predict prog-
nosis (Figure 4–8). The degree of fourth ven-
tricular compression is divided into three
grades depending on whether the fourth ven-
tricle is normal (grade 1), is compressed (grade
2), or is completely effaced (grade 3). Grade 1 or
2 patients who are fully conscious are care-
fully observed for deterioration of level of con-
sciousness. If grade 1 patients have impaired
consciousness, a ventricular drain is placed.
If grade 2 patients have impaired conscious-
ness with hydrocephalus, a ventricular drain is
placed. In grade 3 patients and grade 2 patients
who have impaired consciousness without hy-
drocephalus, the hematoma is evacuated. No
grade 3 patients with a Glasgow Coma Score
less than 8 experienced a good outcome.
156
Clinical predictors of neurologic deteriora-
tion are a systolic blood pressure over 200 mm
Hg, pinpoint pupils, and abnormal corneal or
oculocephalic reflexes. Imaging predictors are
hemorrhage extending into the vermis, a he-
matoma greater than 3 cm in diameter, brain-
stem distortion, interventricular hemorrhage,
upward herniation, or acute hydrocephalus.
Hemorrhages in the vermis and acute hydro-
cephalus on admission independently predict
deterioration.
164
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
147
Cerebellar Infarction
Cerebellar infarction can act as a mass lesion if
there is cerebellar edema. In these cases, as in
cerebellar hemorrhage, the mass effect can
cause stupor or coma by compression of the
brainstem and death by herniation. Cerebellar
infarction represents 2% of strokes.
168,169
Most
victims are men. Hypertension, atrial fibrilla-
tion, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes are
important risk factors in the elderly
168
; verte-
bral artery dissection should be considered in
younger patients.
169
Marijuana use has been
implicated in a few patients.
170
The neurologic
symptoms are similar to those of cerebellar
hemorrhage, but they progress more slowly, as
they are typically due to edema that develops
gradually over 2 to 3 days after the onset of the
infarct, rather than acutely (Table 4–10).
The onset is characteristically marked by
acute or subacute dizziness, vertigo, unsteadi-
ness, and, less often, dull headache. Most of the
IV
th
ventricular grade
II
I
III
GCS (<13)
GCS>13
GCS
Hydrocephalus
Any GCS
Conservative
No
Conservative
Yes
CSF-D
No
Evacuate clot
Yes
No
Evacuate clot
Yes
CSF-D
Improvement
Evacuate clot
+ CSF-D
Figure 4–8. Protocol scheme for the treatment of spontaneous cerebellar hematomas. CSF-D, cerebrospinal fluid
ventricular drainage or shunt; GCS, Glasglow Coma Scale. (From Kirollos et al.,
156
with permission.)
148
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
patients examined within hours of onset are
ataxic, have nystagmus with gaze in either di-
rection but predominantly toward the infarct,
and have dysmetria ipsilateral to the infarct.
Dysarthria and dysphagia are present in some
patients and presumably reflect associated lat-
eral medullary infarction. Only a minority of
patients are lethargic, stuporous, or comatose
on admission, which suggests additional injury
to the brainstem.
168
Initial CT rules out a cerebellar hemor-
rhage, but it is often difficult to demonstrate
an infarct. Even if a hypodense lesion is not
seen, asymmetric compression of the fourth
ventricle may indicate the development of
acute edema. A diffusion-weighted MRI is usu-
ally positive on initial examination.
In most instances, further progression, if it is
to occur, develops by the third day and may
progress to coma within 24 hours.
171
Progres-
sion is characterized by more intense ipsilat-
eral dysmetria followed by increasing drowsi-
ness leading to stupor, and then miotic and
poorly reactive pupils, conjugate gaze paralysis
ipsilateral to the lesion, ipsilateral peripheral
facial paralysis, and extensor plantar responses.
Once the symptoms appear, unless surgical
decompression is conducted promptly, the ill-
ness progresses rapidly to coma, quadriplegia,
and death.
Only the evaluation of clinical signs can de-
termine whether the swelling is resolving or
the enlarging mass must be surgically treated
(by ventricular shunt or extirpation of infarcted
tissue).
171,172
The principles of management of
a patient with a space-occupying cerebellar
infarct are similar to those in cerebellar hem-
orrhage. If the patient remains awake, he or
she is observed carefully. If consciousness is
impaired and there is some degree of acute
hydrocephalus on scan, ventriculostomy may
relieve the compression. However, if there is
no acute hydrocephalus, or if the patient fails
to improve after ventriculostomy, craniotomy
with removal of infarcted tissue is necessary to
relieve brainstem compression. Survival may
follow prompt surgery, but patients may have
distressing neurologic residua if they survive.
Cerebellar Abscess
About 10% of all brain abscesses occur in the
cerebellum.
173
Cerebellar abscesses represent
about 2% of all intracranial infections. Most
arise from chronic ear infections,
174
but some
occur after trauma (head injury or neurosur-
gery) and others are hematogenous in origin. If
untreated, they enlarge, compress the brain-
stem, and cause herniation and death. If suc-
cessfully recognized and treated, the outcome
is usually good. The clinical symptoms of a
cerebellar abscess differ little from those of
other cerebellar masses (Table 4–11).
Headache and vomiting are very common.
Patients may or may not be febrile or have nu-
Table 4–10 Symptoms, Signs, and Consciousness Levels on Admission in 293
Patients With Cerebellar Infarction
Symptoms
No. (%)
Signs
No. (%)
Consciousness
Levels on
Admission
No. (%)
Vertigo/dizziness
206 (70)
Limb ataxia
172 (59)
Clear
195 (67)
Nausea/vomiting
165 (56)
Truncal ataxia
133 (45)
Confused
73 (25)
Gait disturbance
116 (40)
Dysarthria
123 (42)
Obtunded
20 (7)
Headache
94 (32)
Nystagmus
111 (38)
Comatose
5 (2)
Dysarthria
59 (20)
Hemiparesis
59 (20)
Tinnitus
14 (5)
Facial palsy
23 (8)
Anisocoria
17 (6)
Conjugate deviation
18 (6)
Horner’s syndrome
15 (5)
Upward gaze palsy
12 (4)
Loss of light reflex
11 (4)
From Tohgi et al.,
168
with permission.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
149
chal rigidity.
175
If the patient does not have an
obvious source of infection, is not febrile, and
has a supple neck, a cerebellar abscess is of-
ten mistaken for a tumor, the correct diagnosis
being made only by surgery. About one-half of
patients have a depressed level of conscious-
ness.
173
The diagnosis is made by imaging, scans
revealing a mass with a contrast-enhancing rim
and usually an impressive amount of edema.
Restricted diffusion on diffusion-weighted MRI
helps distinguish the abscess from tumor or
hematoma. Hydrocephalus is a common com-
plication. The treatment is surgical, either pri-
mary excision
176
or aspiration.
177
The outcome
is better when patients with hydrocephalus are
treated with CSF diversion or drainage.
173
Cerebellar Tumor
Most cerebellar tumors of adults are metasta-
ses.
178
The common cerebellar primary tumors
of children, medulloblastoma and pilocytic
astrocytoma, are rare in adults. Cerebellar he-
mangioblastomas may occur in adults, but they
are uncommon.
179
The symptoms of cerebellar
tumors are the same as those of any cerebellar
mass, but because their growth is relatively slow,
they rarely cause significant alterations of con-
sciousness unless there is a sudden hemorrhage Dostları ilə paylaş: |