Astrocytes
ATP
ATP
Ado
PGs
tCa
2
+
Cox2
EETs
P450
1P3
NO
VIP
DA
SP
5HT
GABA
NA
ACh
Interneuron
central pathways
H
+
Ado
Glu
mGluR
Gap
junction
Ado
ATP
NO
PGs
NOS
Cox2
Figure 5–4. Vasoactive mediators released from neurons and glia by neural activity. Ions (H
þ
and K
þ
) contribute to the
extracellular currents that are associated with synaptic transmission. Adenosine (Ado) is produced through adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) catabolism. Glutamate (Glu)-induced increases in the intracellular concentration of Ca
2þ
in neurons
and glia activate the synthesis of nitric oxide (NO), of the cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox2) products prostaglandins (PGs), and of
the cytochrome P450 epoxygenase products epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs). In astrocytes, the [Ca
2þ
] increase is
produced by activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) and by propagation of Ca
2þ
waves from neigh-
boring astrocytes through activation of purinergic receptors (P2Y) or entry of 1P3 (inositol (1,4,5)-triphosphate) through
gap junctions. Astrocytic lipoxygenase products could also produce vasodilation by inducing NO release from endothelial
cells. Spatial buffering currents in astrocytes release K
þ
from perivascular end-feet, where K
þ
conductance is greatest (K
þ
siphoning). Interneurons and projecting neurons with perivascular contacts release vasoactive neurotransmitters and
neuropeptides, including NO, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), dopamine (DA), substance P (SP), serotonin (5HT),
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), noradrenaline (NA), and acetylcholine (ACh). (From Iadecola,
59
with permission.)
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
201
Several factors may explain why ischemia so
severely threatens tissue structure. A change in
pH or lactic acid concentration is one factor.
Anaerobic metabolism produces large amounts
of lactic acid and lowers the pH. The increased
concentration of hydrogen ions leads to cell
death
62
by increasing brain edema, interfering
with mitochondrial ATP generation, increasing
calcium levels, and the formation of free radi-
cals, all of which can cause cellular death.
63
Hy-
poglycemia (see below), by increasing lactate
production, contributes to the brain damage.
Several other factors play a role in helping
regulate CBF, the most important of which is
PCO
2
or, more accurately, cerebral pH. Ce-
rebral acidosis is a potent vasodilator, as is
potassium, which leaks into the brain extra-
cellular space during hypoxia. Other factors
that serve to increase CBF include nitric oxide
(which in older literature was referred to as
endothelial-derived relaxing factor), adenosine
(probably working through nitric oxide), and
prostaglandins (for a review see
59,64
).
GLUCOSE METABOLISM
Glucose is the overwhelmingly predominant
blood-borne substrate for brain metabolism.
One might question why this is so since it is
known that slices of cerebral cortex in vitro can
utilize a variety of substrates, including fatty
acids and other compounds, to synthesize ace-
toacetate for entry into the citric acid cycle.
The answer appears to lie in the specialized
properties of the blood-brain barrier, which, by
rigorously limiting or facilitating the entry or
egress of substances to and from the brain,
guards the narrow homeostasis of that organ.
Glucose is transported across the blood-brain
barrier by a carrier-mediated glucose trans-
porter (Glut-1). The uptake of glucose into
neurons is also facilitated by a glucose trans-
porter (Glut-3), and glucose uptake into astro-
cytes by Glut-1. Under normal circumstances,
brain glucose concentration is approximately
30% of that of plasma. Insulin is not required
for the entry of glucose into brain or for its
metabolism by brain cells. Nevertheless, the
brain is rich in insulin receptors with substan-
tial regional variation, the richest area being
the olfactory bulb.
65
Insulin itself reaches the
brain using a transporter that is partially satu-
rated at euglycemic levels. The exact function
of insulin and its receptor in the brain is not
known.
In net metabolic terms, each 100 g of brain
in a normal human being utilizes about 0.31
mol (5.5 mg) of glucose per minute so that in
the basal, prolonged fasting state, the brain’s
consumption of glucose almost equals the total
amount that the liver produces. This net fig-
ure, however, hides the fact that glucose con-
sumption in local regions of the brain varies
widely according to local functional changes.
Because of its rapid transfer into brain, glucose
represents essentially the organ’s only substrate
under normal physiologic conditions. However,
neurons probably utilize lactate produced from
glucose by astrocytes when stimulated with
glutamate.
66
Ketone bodies can diffuse into brain and
also are transported across the blood-brain
barrier. These substances provide increased
fuel to the brain when beta-hydroxybutyrate,
acetoacetate, and other ketones increase in the
blood during states such as starvation, the in-
gestion of high-fat diets, or ketoacidosis. Dur-
ing starvation, in fact, liver gluconeogenesis
may fall below the level required to meet ce-
rebral substrate needs; at such times ketone
utilization can contribute as much as 30% of
the brain’s fuel for oxidative metabolism. For
unknown reasons, however, the brain does not
appear able to subsist entirely on ketone bod-
ies, and as mentioned below, some investiga-
tors believe that ketones contribute to the neu-
rologic toxicity of diabetic ketoacidosis.
Under normal circumstances, all but about
15% of glucose uptake in the brain is accounted
for by combustion with O
2
to produce H
2
O
and energy, the remainder going to lactate pro-
duction. The brain contains about 1 mmol/kg
of free glucose in reserve and a considerable
amount of glycogen, perhaps as high as 10
mg/L, which is present in astrocytes.
67,68
With
the addition of either increased metabolic de-
mand or decreased metabolic supply, glycogen
in astrocytes can break down to lactate to sup-
port neuronal function. Despite this, depriva-
tion of glucose and oxygen to the brain rapidly
results in loss of consciousness, normal cere-
bral function being maintained for only a mat-
ter of seconds.
The energy balance of the brain is influenced
both by its supply of energy precursors (i.e.,
its input) and by the work the organ does
(i.e., its output). Just as intrinsic mechanisms
202
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
appropriately increase or decrease the rate of
metabolism in different regions of the brain
during periods of locally increased or de-
creased functional activity, intrinsic mecha-
nisms appear able to ‘‘turn down’’ general ce-
rebral metabolic activity and produce stupor or
coma when circumstances threaten to deplete
blood-borne substrate.
Several metabolic disorders are known to
cause a decrease in the brain’s rate of me-
tabolism and physiologic function without ini-
tially resulting in any encroachment on the
energy reserves of the tissue. The reversible
hypometabolism of anesthesia is discussed in a
following section. Mechanistically less well un-
derstood than anesthesia is a reversible hypo-
metabolism that accompanies the early stages
of hypoglycemia, severe hypoxemia, reduced
states of CBF, and hyperammonemia. The
response appears to be important in protecting
the brain against irreversible damage, how-
ever, and is well illustrated by describing the
neurochemical changes that accompany hy-
poglycemia. Both hyperglycemia and hypogly-
cemia can damage the brain.
Hyperglycemia
Brain damage from chronic hyperglycemia
(i.e., either type 1 or type 2 diabetes) is well
established.
69
Sustained hyperglycemia causes
hyperosmolality, which in turn induces com-
pensatory vasopressin secretion. Although adap-
tive in the short term, in the long term sustained
hyperglycemia damages vasopressin-secreting
neurons in the hypothalamus and supraoptic
nucleus. In addition, some evidence suggests
that sustained hyperglycemia damages hippo-
campal neurons as well,
70
leading to cognitive
defects in both humans
71
and experimental an-
imals. These effects appear to be independent
of diabetes-induced damage to brain vascula-
ture leading to stroke, a common complication
of chronic poorly controlled diabetes.
The effect of hyperglycemia on patients with
damaged brains is less clear cut. Clinical evi-
dence demonstrates that patients who are hy-
perglycemic after brain injury, either due to
global or focal ischemia
72
or to brain trauma,
do less well than patients who are euglycemic.
The same may well be true for critically ill pa-
tients, even those without direct brain damage.
These findings have led investigators to recom-
mend careful control of blood glucose in criti-
cally ill patients and those with brain injury of
various types.
73
The mechanism by which hyperglycemia
worsens the prognosis in such patients is not
clear. Some believe that the increased pro-
duction of lactate and lowering of the pH leads
to the cellular damage. However, lactate is
probably a good substrate for neurons, and the
increased blood glucose should be protective.
In fact, in experimental animals, a glucose load
given 2 to 3 hours before an ischemic insult
is protective, but the same glucose load ad-
ministered 15 to 60 minutes before ischemia
aggravates the ischemic outcome,
74
although
these findings have been challenged.
75
Another
possible mechanism by which hyperglycemia
may damage the brain is that a glucose load
leads to release of glucocorticoids that in turn
can cause cellular damage.
70
Whatever the
mechanism, careful control of blood glucose
allowing neither hyper- nor hypoglycemia ap-
pears essential for the best care of critically ill
and brain-injured patients.
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia deprives the brain of its major
substrate and can be expected to interfere with
cerebral metabolism by reducing the brain’s
energy supply in a manner similar to that caused
by hypoxia. With very severe or prolonged hy-
poglycemia this turns out to be true, but with
less severe or transient reductions of glucose
availability, one finds that brain function and
metabolism decline before one can detect a de-
cline in ATP levels in the tissue.
Soon after insulin came into clinical use, it
was realized that hypoglycemic coma could last
for up to an hour or so without necessarily leav-
ing any residual neurologic effects or structural
brain damage. (This capacity to induce tran-
sient but fully reversible coma was important
in developing the ineffective
76
use of insulin
coma in attempts to treat psychiatric disor-
ders.) Since equally long periods of hypoxemic
coma always leave neurologic damage in their
wake, the difference between the effects of a
deficiency of oxygen and a deficiency of sub-
strate has engendered considerable interest.
Accordingly, the mechanism of hypoglyce-
mic coma has received repeated attention
by biochemists with results important to the
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
203
understanding of many aspects of human ce-
rebral metabolism.
Hypoglycemia affects CBF, glucose con-
sumption, and oxygen consumption in differ-
ent ways. Clinical studies of CBF and metab-
olism during hypoglycemia in humans indicate
that at all levels of blood sugar thus far stud-
ied, CBF remains the same or may occasion-
ally rise,
77
perhaps from nitric acid release,
78
or fall slightly.
79
Overall changes in CBF do
not reflect regional changes. At modest levels
of hypoglycemia (3.0 mmol/L), CBF increases
in several areas including the medial prefrontal
cortex, whereas it falls in others, such as the
hippocampus.
79
In an experimental study, a
sharp rise in CBF (57%) occurred when blood
glucose concentrations fell below 2 mmol/L, at
which point brain glucose concentrations ap-
proached zero.
80
With a relatively mild reduc-
tion of blood glucose in humans down to levels
of 1.7 to 2.6 mmol/dL (31 to 46 mg/dL), con-
sciousness is preserved, and cerebral glucose
consumption (CMRglu) declines moderately
but cerebral oxygen consumption remains nor-
mal. Despite the preservation of consciousness,
at levels of approximately 2.5 mmol/L the la-
tency of the P300 readiness potential increases
as does reaction time, suggesting an altered
ability to make decisions.
81
In patients with hy-
poglycemic coma, cerebral metabolic rate for
oxygen (CMRO
2
) declines only to an insignif-
icant degree, but CMRglu falls dispropor-
tionately by more than half.
77
These changes
imply that during hypoglycemia the brain is
utilizing substrates other than glucose for oxi-
dative metabolism, such as endogenous gly-
cogen
82
and lactate.
83
Furthermore, despite a
normal oxygen consumption, the qualitative
change in substrate results in profound func-
tional changes in the neural systems that nor-
mally subserve consciousness.
Studies in animals extend the above studies
in man and indicate that even with degrees of
hypoglycemia sufficient to produce convulsions
or deep coma, whole brain energy reserves are
at least briefly maintained. Levels of phospho-
creatine and ATP remain normal in the brains
of mice or rats so long as EEG activity re-
mained. Energy reserves fail only after pro-
longed convulsive activity or after the EEG
becomes isoelectric ($1 mmol/L
84
).
Cerebral metabolic studies imply that hy-
poglycemic confusion, stupor, and even coma
in its early stages cannot be attributed simply
to a failure of overall cerebral energy sup-
ply. The mechanism by which hypoglycemia
causes irreversible neurologic dysfunction is
not known, but experimental evidence sug-
gests that impaired acetylcholine metabolism
85
or a rise in aspartic acid levels leading to ex-
cessive excitation of neurons
86
may be in-
volved. Profound hypoglycemia causes patho-
logic changes in the brain, probably due in
part to the massive release of aspartate into
the brain extracellular space, flooding excit-
atory amino acid receptors and causing an in-
flux of calcium, leading to neuronal necrosis.
84
Evidence also implicates apoptosis, probably
resulting from release of cytochrome C, causing
an increase in caspase-like activity.
87
Other mechanisms may add to the neu-
rologic dysfunction caused by hypoglycemia.
Neurogenic pulmonary edema resulting from
a massive sympathetic discharge adds hypoxia
to the hypoglycemic insult.
88
Transient cere-
bral edema, either vasogenic
89
from increased
blood-brain barrier permeability or cytotoxic,
90
may also complicate the development of hy-
poglycemia. A single case report describes the
development of central pontine myelolysis (see
page 171) associated with hypoglycemic coma,
but without electrolyte disturbance, in a patient
with anorexia nervosa
91
; the cause is unknown.
The above discussion on hypoglycemia in-
dicates that the presence or absence of energy
failure in the tissue may be the major factor
that determines whether cells die or recover.
The following section extends the point and
compares some of the cerebral metabolic
effects of reversible anesthesia with those of
anoxic-ischemic and other metabolic condi-
tions producing stupor or coma.
Many directly applied physical and chemi-
cal agents can injure the brain. For example,
trauma can shear axons and displace tissue suf-
ficiently to cause neuronal death. However, in
addition to direct injury, many lethal injuries
of the brain exert their effects by producing
tissue anoxia. As discussed above, the body nor-
mally maintains its nervous tissue in a constant
‘‘high-energy’’ state in which the oxidative me-
tabolism of glucose generates a constant sup-
ply of ATP and phosphocreatine to maintain
membrane potentials, transmit neuronal im-
pulses, and synthesize protoplasm. When the
mechanisms that sustain these energy reserves
go awry, ATP and phosphocreatine levels de-
cline, membranes lose their pumping mecha-
204
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
nisms, the cells swell, and, at some point, the
neuron loses its capacity to recover. Histologic
evidence, discussed below, indicates that the
mitochondria bear the initial brunt of irre-
versible damage, while histochemical evidence
suggests that oxidative enzymes themselves are
destroyed.
92
As the precise lethal point of no
return is unknown in cellular-molecular terms,
one generally must turn to physiologic models
when trying to find out just when and why the
nervous system dies. Evidence from such mod-
els indicates that the brain can harmlessly sus-
pend its activities almost indefinitely when
metabolically depressed or cooled, but quickly
succumbs when it loses its functional activities
in the absence of oxygen or substrate.
ANESTHESIA
General anesthesia and slow-wave sleep are
states comparable to pathologic coma, but
which maintain normal levels of energy metab-
olites and are easily reversible. Both may affect
the same structures
93
in the brain, but the
mechanisms of neither are fully understood. In
both sleep and anesthesia, there is inhibition of
the neuronal pathways making up the ascend-
ing arousal system. During sleep, gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic neurons in
the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus inhibit the
components of the ascending arousal system
via GABA
A
receptors (see Chapter 1). Most
general anesthetics are potential GABA
A
re-
ceptor agonists that inhibit the activity of the
arousal system by activating the same GABA
A
receptors used by the ventrolateral preoptic
nucleus during sleep. The result is slowing
of thalamocortical activity in both sleep and
general anesthesia.
94,95
General anesthetic agents produce immo-
bility and block pain, largely the effect of the
anesthetics on the descending brainstem mod-
ulatory systems and directly on the spinal cord,
and cause amnesia and loss of consciousness
when given in high doses.
95,96
These actions for
most anesthetic agents (benzodiazepines, bar-
biturates, propofol, ethanol, gas anesthetics) are
due to activation of different classes of GABA
A
receptors that contain alpha-1 subunits (most
important in sedative and amnestic effects) and
alpha-2, -3, and -5 subunits (most important
for anxiolytic and muscle relaxant effects).
97
Other anesthetic agents, such as nitrous oxide
and ketamine, act mainly as N-methyl-d-
aspartate (NMDA) antagonists. These agents
distort, rather than depress, thalamocortical ac-
tivity, and hence are sometimes called disso-
ciative agents rather than anesthetics. Thus,
whereas GABA
A
agonist general anesthetics
decrease cerebral metabolism, ketamine in-
creases CBF and maintains oxygen and glucose
metabolism at a waking level.
98
The depth of
anesthesia and the degree of diminution of ce-
rebral metabolism with GABA
A
agonist anes-
thetics can be roughly measured by the EEG.
As anesthesia deepens, electroencephalo-
graphic activity is suppressed; the degree of
suppression from none to a completely iso-
electric EEG correlates roughly with the cere-
bral metabolic rate.
99
Some general anesthetics
actually increase CBF, but they still diminish
cerebral metabolism. Thus, clinically, anesthe-
sia depresses the function of the brain but keeps
that organ in a high-energy state poised for the
resumption of normal function. Well-ventilated
animals subject to various concentrations of
general anesthetics maintain normal concen-
trations of ATP and phosphocreatine and nor-
mal lactate pyruvate ratios, indicating that no
tissue hypoxia has occurred.
100
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