is usually less
than 100), whereas metabolic acidosis with re-
spiratory compensation suggests postseizure lactic
acidosis.
Table 5–9 Prodromal Symptoms in
53 of 85 Patients With Basilar
Artery Occlusion
Symptom
No. of
Patients
Vertigo, nausea
26*
Headache, neckache
18
Hemiparesis
9
Double vision
9
Dysarthria
9
Hemianopia
5
Hemihypesthesia
5
Tinnitus, hearing loss
5
Drop attack
4
Confusion
3
Other
6
*Only four of these patients did not experience other
prodromal symptoms.
214
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Intermittent or Sustained Hypoxia
Intermittent hypoxia is exemplified by dimin-
ished cognitive functions and sometimes acute
delirium in patients suffering from obstructive
sleep apnea.
162
Sustained hypoxia is illustrated
by delirium and sometimes focal neurologic
signs that occur in young people at altitudes
above 10,000 feet (3,000 meters).
163,164
These
disorders are fully reversible. In addition, ex-
treme degrees of anemia or low arterial oxy-
genation due to myocardial infarction, conges-
tive heart failure, and pulmonary disease can,
under appropriate circumstances, produce de-
lirium, stupor, or coma. This is particularly true
when more than one cause of hypoxia is pres-
ent. For example, a myocardial infarct may
cause encephalopathy in moderately anemic
elderly subjects who also have chronic pul-
monary disease. Happily, often correcting only
one of the problems may ameliorate the en-
cephalopathy.
Multifocal cerebral ischemia occurs in a
number of conditions affecting the arterial
bed or its contents. Hypertensive encepha-
lopathy,
165
also referred to as hyperperfusion
encephalopathy
166
or posterior reversible
leukoencephalopathy (PRES),
167
is relatively
rare, but often misdiagnosed. Its importance
lies in the fact that if the disorder is ap-
propriately identified and treated, it is usually
(but not always) reversible. Formerly associ-
ated only with acute hypertensive emergen-
cies, particularly eclampsia, the illness is now
seen in a variety of settings including after the
administration of cyclosporin or tacrolimus, as
well as after several cancer chemotherapeutic
agents.
168,169
It is also seen in a slightly dif-
ferent form after carotid endarterectomy and
in a variety of small vessel diseases including
systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma,
and cryoglobulinemia. In one series of 110
patients, 30 suffered from pre-eclampsia or
eclampsia and 24 from cyclosporin or tacroli-
mus neurotoxicity.
166
Most but not all of the
patients in whom the disorder is induced by
chemotherapy are also hypertensive, although
the hypertension may be quite transitory and
missed unless the patient’s blood pressure is
being monitored. Typically the patient, previ-
ously neurologically normal, complains of se-
vere headache and may become agitated, lead-
ing to progressive confusion, delirium, stupor,
or coma. Many patients suffer from focal or
generalized seizures and multifocal neurologic
signs, especially cortical blindness, but also
hemiplegia or other focal signs. On neurologic
examination, one clue is retinal artery spasm
and papilloretinal edema; retinal exudates may
also be present.
The imaging findings are characteristic and
best seen on MRI
168
(CT scans may be normal
or may show hypodensity in the parietal-
occipital areas bilaterally). The MRI shows
increased intensity on T2 and fluid-attenuated
inversion recovery (FLAIR) images bilaterally
and often symmetrically involving the poste-
rior hemispheres and, less commonly, the cer-
ebellum, thalamus, brainstem, and splenium
of the corpus callosum. Rarely, more frontal
areas may be involved as well. T1 images may
show hypointensity in the same areas and oc-
casionally contrast enhancement. Diffusion-
weighted images are usually normal, but in
its more severe form, may indicate restricted
diffusion. Perfusion studies demonstrate hy-
perperfusion in the areas of abnormal signal.
These MR findings are characteristic of vaso-
genic cerebral edema. Abnormal diffusion im-
ages indicate cerebral ischemia or infarction
and suggest a poorer prognosis.
The pathogenesis of the disorder is believed
to be a breakdown of the blood-brain barrier
resulting from damage to endothelial cells when
hypertension exceeds the boundaries of auto-
regulation and small vessels dilate, opening the
blood-brain barrier. Other factors that also
play a role include up-regulation of aquaporin-
4 (a water channel in cerebral blood vessels
that is also up-regulated in normal preg-
nancy),
170
interleukin-6 (an inflammatory cy-
tokine that opens the blood-brain barrier), and
nitric oxide, which induces vasodilation, par-
ticularly when intravascular flow rates are high,
overcoming autoregulation.
165
The posterior
distribution of the changes is not understood,
but may be a result of the tendency for swell-
ing of the medial temporal lobes to compress
the posterior cerebral arteries, which may
further diminish blood flow to this territory.
In less severe cases neuropathologic find-
ings only reveal edema of white matter,
171
and
if treated (e.g., for pre-eclampsia), the MRI
changes and functional impairment may
be entirely reversible. In more severe cases,
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
215
microangiopathy with endothelial swelling and
fibrinoid necrosis of small vessels and some-
times frank infarction occurs.
172
The treatment consists first of recognizing
the syndrome and lowering the blood pres-
sure. Blood pressure lowering should be done
judiciously, preferably in an intensive care unit
with an arterial line in place. Most authorities
recommend reduction of mean arterial pres-
sure by no more than 20% to 25% within a
period of minutes to a couple of hours; more
rapid reduction may lead to cerebral infarc-
tion.
173
In patients with eclampsia or pre-
eclampsia, intravenous magnesium sulfate has
been shown in controlled trials to improve
outcome, perhaps by its action as a vascular
calcium channel blocker.
174
The blood pressure may not be very high,
particularly in children in whom resting blood
pressure is usually quite low, or in pregnant
women in whom the resting blood pressure is
usually considerably lower than other adults.
In fact, in a pregnant woman, an increase in
blood pressure to a level that is still in the high
normal range (e.g., 140/90) may be sufficient
to cause the symptoms. Often, these patients
present with a migrainous syndrome in the
predelivery period or up to 2 weeks after de-
livery. It is the sudden rise from baseline level
that causes the problem. In many patients, at
the time the illness is recognized the blood
pressure has already returned toward normal
and these patients need only be treated with
careful observation.
Patient 5–8
A 63-year-old man with a history of hypertension
who had been complaining of headache for ap-
proximately 2 months was brought to an emer-
gency department having been found unconscious
in his home. When he arrived at the emergency
department he was poorly responsive and had
a right hemiplegia. His blood pressure was 200/
130 mm Hg. An MR scan revealed large T2 and
FLAIR hyperintense lesions in both posterior hemi-
spheres with a rim of contrast enhancement sur-
rounding the larger left-sided lesion (Figure 5–6).
His physicians, concerned about the enhancing
lesions representing a tumor, undertook an exten-
sive workup, which included two lumbar punc-
tures, which were unrevealing; a PET image of the
Figure 5–6. Posterior reversible leukoencephalopathy.
Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) image (A)
and contrast-enhanced T1 (B). This was the magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scan that led to the brain biopsy
in Patient 5–8. The area of enhancement at the margin
was interpreted as compatible with a glioma. (MRI courtesy
Dr. Alexis Demopoulos.)
216
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
brain, showing decreased activity in the involved
regions; and a body PET, which was negative. The
family was informed that he probably had a brain
tumor and a brain biopsy was performed that re-
vealed only edematous tissue. Finally, attempts
were made to control his blood pressure. He re-
mained confused for 7 days and then began to
improve. An MR scan done a week later continued
to reveal hyperintensity on the FLAIR image with
the added changes in the cerebellum and brain-
stem. The patient continued to improve and his
neurologic signs eventually returned to normal
with complete resolution on the MR scan. He was
discharged on antihypertensive agents.
Disseminated intravascular coagulation is
characterized by the intravascular activation
of coagulation leading to occlusion of multiple
small vessels. It has several different causes,
175
including sepsis,
176
trauma (particularly head
injury),
177
malignancy,
178
hepatic failure, and
several severe toxic and immunologic reac-
tions.
179
The disorder may cause either small
cerebral infarcts or cerebral hemorrhages in-
cluding subdural hematomas. On the other
hand, diffuse vascular plugging, particularly
on the venous side, may reduce CBF so that
the neurologic symptoms are nonspecific and
include fluctuating focal neurologic signs, de-
lirium, and sometimes stupor or coma. The
diagnosis is established by examination of co-
agulation factors in the blood.
180
The presence
of disseminated intravascular coagulation in an
illness such as sepsis or head trauma confers a
poor prognosis.
Cerebral malaria is a common and feared
complication of infection with Plasmodium
falciparum. In adults it is generally part of
multiorgan failure and is characterized by de-
lirium, stupor, or coma usually following a gen-
eralized seizure. Patients often have disconju-
gate eye movements and may have flexor or
extensor rigidity. Mortality in adults is about
20% and most deaths occur within 24 hours of
the onset of the illness. Because the enceph-
alopathy follows systemic manifestations of
malaria (i.e., chills and fever), the diagnosis
is not difficult. About 15% of patients have
retinal hemorrhages, which aid in the diagno-
sis. The pathogenesis of the disorder includes
obstruction of the cerebral microvasculature.
There may be raised ICP with edema, both
vasogenic and cytotoxic. The disorder may
be complicated by hypoglycemia and the se-
quelae of generalized convulsions.
181
Fat embolism, frequently a complication of
skeletal trauma particularly involving fracture
of the large, long bones that contain substantial
amounts of marrow, is characterized by the
release of fat droplets that plug small vessels
from the marrow into the venous circulation.
These may be sufficiently compliant to squeeze
through lung capillaries, reaching the arte-
rial circulation and causing diffuse plugging
of small arterioles and capillaries. Two clinical
syndromes arise from fat embolus. The first, or
pulmonary syndrome, is a result of the initial
multiple pulmonary microemboli that lead to
progressive hypoxia with resulting tachypnea
and hypocarbia (similar to other forms of pul-
monary embolus). The hypoxia can be initially
corrected by oxygen, but if the emboli occlude
enough alveolar capillaries, the patient even-
tually develops respiratory failure. The second,
or cerebral syndrome, is characterized by con-
fusion, lethargy, stupor, or coma.
182
Charac-
teristically, the symptoms are not present im-
mediately following the traumatic injury, but
rather after a period of several hours to as long
as 2 or 3 days during which the fat emboli pass
from the pulmonary to the arterial circulation.
The patient becomes lethargic and, in fulmi-
nant instances, comatose. Accompanying the
diffuse neurologic signs of stupor and coma
can be a variety of focal signs including focal
seizures, hemiparesis, or conjugate deviation of
the eyes. The diagnosis can be difficult to es-
tablish in mild to moderately severe cases. In
severe or fulminating instances, a characteris-
tic petechial rash usually develops over the
neck, shoulders, and upper part of the anterior
thorax on the second or third day after injury.
Biopsy of the petechiae reveals lipid emboli in
small vessels. However, because standard tis-
sue processing involves delipidation, it is nec-
essary to alert the pathologist to the possibil-
ity of fat emboli so that frozen tissue sections
can be stained for fat. Similar petechiae may
be seen in the conjunctivae and eye grounds.
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) sug-
gests the presence of lipid in the brain before
there is evidence of cerebral hypoxic ischemia
due to small vessel occlusions.
183
Later, the
MRI gives evidence of multiple high-intensity
lesions on diffusion-weighted image present-
ing as bright spots on a dark background
(star field patterns).
184
The prognosis with
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
217
supportive care is good, and patients who
survive an acute episode usually recover with-
out significant neurologic residua. An occa-
sional patient may suffer prolonged coma
usually with diffuse cerebral edema.
185
Sili-
cone emboli injected for cosmetic purposes
may mimic the fat embolism syndrome.
186
HISTORICAL VIGNETTE
Patient 5–9
A previously healthy 27-year-old woman was ex-
amined through the courtesy of Dr. Philip Swan-
son of the University of Washington, Seattle. While
skiing, she suffered a noncompound fracture of the
left tibia and fibula. Except for pain, her condition
was uncomplicated until 36 hours later when
nurses recorded that she was not making verbal
responses. Shortly thereafter, she received pento-
thal sodium and nitrous oxide-oxygen anesthesia
for closed reduction of the fracture and failed to
awaken postoperatively. Examination revealed
intact pupillary responses and intermittent abnor-
mal extensor posturing of the extremities, more on
the left than the right. Blood gases showed a PaO
2
of 60 mm Hg and PaCO
2
of 20 mm Hg. Fat drop-
lets were found in the urine and the CSF, and
successive small numbers of petechial hemor-
rhages appeared in the optic fundi and the con-
junctivae. No episode of hypotension or cardiac
arrhythmia was ever recorded.
Seven days after the onset of coma, the woman
lay in an eyes-open state with roving eye move-
ments and gave no sign of psychologic awareness.
Constant posturing of the head and extremities
was present. She perspired heavily and chewed
briskly during times that the eyes were open. There
was hypertonus in all four extremities with the
postures as noted. The left leg remained in a cast.
The patient remained in a vegetative state for
another 48 hours, then began to talk and follow
commands. Her somatic neurologic defects grad-
ually subsided. Successive psychologic tests re-
flected gradual intellectual improvement. Four
months following the accident, the neurologic
examination showed that she had returned to nor-
mal. She scored 100 on the Wechsler Adult Intel-
ligence Scale and 110 on the Memory Scale. She
returned to full employment.
Comment: This patient had a characteristic
course for fat embolism, so that despite the lack
of scanning available at the time, the diagnosis
is clear and the natural history of the disorder is
apparent.
Cardiopulmonary bypass surgery results in
virtually continuous bombardment of the brain
with emboli. These may be recorded during
surgery with intracranial Doppler monitoring.
The embolic barrage results in four different
patterns of neurologic complications
187
: cere-
bral infarction, postoperative delirium, tran-
sient cognitive dysfunction, and long-term cog-
nitive dysfunction. Infarction occurs in 1% to
5% of patients; a postoperative delirium com-
plicates 10% to 30% of patients. The delirium is
often hyperactive and florid, usually beginning
1 or 2 days after the operation and persisting for
several days (see page 283). Short-term cog-
nitive dysfunction has been reported in 30%
to 80% of patients, with long-term cognitive
changes in 20% to 60% of patients. In addi-
tion to the multiple emboli, hypotension during
anesthesia with hypoxia during extracorporal
circulation may contribute to this outcome.
Early reports suggested that there was perma-
nent cognitive dysfunction after pulmonary
bypass surgery. On the other hand, recent re-
ports
188
conclude that control groups with sim-
ilar levels of coronary artery disease also have
worse cognitive scores than healthy controls.
Emboli to the brain from the heart originate
from cardiac valves infected with bacteria,
189
from cardiac valves encrusted with fibrin-
platelet vegetations in patients with nonbacte-
rial thrombotic endocarditis,
190
from prosthetic
cardiac valves,
191
and from cardiac thrombus or
cardiac myxoma.
192
Depending on the size and
number of the emboli, the vessels in which they
lodge, and the rapidity of their resolution, pa-
tients can present with either focal signs due to
fairly large cerebral infarcts or more diffuse
neurologic signs including delirium and stupor,
either accompanied or unaccompanied by fo-
cal neurologic signs. Patients with nonbacterial
thrombotic endocarditis are more likely to ex-
hibit a pattern of numerous small infarcts in
multiple territories than are patients with infec-
tive endocarditis, who are more likely to have
lesions restricted to a single territory.
193
An
MRI showing multiple areas of abnormality,
only some of which are positive on diffusion-
weighted image, indicates multiple infarcts
of different ages. If the abnormalities are in
218
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
several different vascular territories, it is likely
that the emboli come from a central source,
such as the heart or aorta. Echocardiography
helps establish the diagnosis. If transthoracic
echocardiography is negative, a transesophageal
echocardiogram may establish the diagnosis.
194
Patient 5–10
A 58-year-old man was admitted to the hospital for
left-sided weakness. He had lost about 30 pounds
over the previous 2 months, and on general ex-
amination he had a distended liver. On examina-
tion he was slightly lethargic, but other cognitive
functions were intact. There was weakness of ad-
duction of the left eye on looking to the right, with
nystagmus in the abducting eye. He showed left
upper motor neuron facial paresis and weakness of
his left arm and leg. In addition, there was loss of
appreciation of the position of his left limbs in
space. CT scan disclosed both a right middle ce-
rebral artery distribution infarct as well as a small
infarct in the paramedian portion of the upper
pons. Because these infarcts were apparently in
two different vascular distributions, a central cause
of emboli was suspected.
CT of the abdomen disclosed a mass in the head
of the pancreas, diagnosed as pancreatic carci-
noma, as well as multiple liver metastases. Trans-
thoracic and transesophageal echocardiogram was
negative, as was heart rhythm monitoring. Blood
coagulation testing showed a mild elevation of the
prothrombin time and elevated fibrin degradation
products. He subsequently had fluctuating drows-
iness and passed into a coma, and a decision was
made by the family to provide only comfort care.
He died several days later.
At autopsy, the diagnosis of metastatic pan-
creatic carcinoma was confirmed. Examination of
the heart disclosed vegetations on the mitral valve
consisting of fibrin-platelet thrombi. There was dif-
fuse thrombosis in both arteries and veins within
the brain and the kidneys, but limited evidence of
disseminated coagulation in other organs.
Comment: Coagulopathies, including dissem-
inated intravascular coagulation, venous throm-
bosis (which may cause paradoxic emboli),
nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis, or some
combination of these syndromes, are a common
cause of stroke in patients with cancer. Hemato-
logic signs and involvement of other organ systems Dostları ilə paylaş: |