advanced cases, involvement of oculomotor
muscles may be sufficient to cause complete
external ophthalmoplegia; fixed, dilated pu-
pils are a rarity. Most patients also suffer from
ataxia, dysarthria, and a mild peripheral neu-
ropathy in addition to the eye signs. Many af-
fected patients show a curious indifference to
noxious stimulation and some are hypother-
mic and hypophagic. Autonomic insufficiency
is so common that orthostatic hypotension and
shock are constant threats. The hypotension
of Wernicke’s disease appears to result from a
combination of neural lesions and depleted
blood volume and is probably the most com-
mon cause of death.
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
223
The MRI is characteristic. T2 and FLAIR
images are symmetrically hyperintense in the
mammillary bodies, dorsal medial thalami, peri-
ventricular areas of the hypothalamus, peria-
queductal gray matter, and tectum of the mid-
brain. On rare occasions, hemorrhage can be
demonstrated in the mammillary bodies by hy-
perintensity on T1-weighted image. Lesions do
not usually contrast enhance.
136,222
Diffusion-
weighted images may show restricted diffusion
within the areas, a finding that may be more
sensitive than standard sequences.
222,223
Re-
stricted diffusion has also been reported in
the splenium of the corpus callosum in acute
Wernicke’s encephalopathy.
223
Corpus callo-
sum atrophy has been demonstrated in pa-
tients with Wernicke’s disease related to al-
cohol, but not those with Wernicke’s disease
related to intestinal surgery, anorexia, or hy-
peremeses gravidarum.
224
DISEASES OF ORGAN SYSTEMS
OTHER THAN BRAIN
Liver Disease
Liver disease can damage the brain in several
ways. Acute liver failure causes brain edema
with resultant intracranial hypertension.
225
About 30% of patients with acute liver failure
succumb when ICPs increase to levels that
impair CBF causing brain infarction, increased
edema, and eventual transtentorial herniation.
Chronic liver failure, usually from cirrhosis or
after portocaval shunting, is usually character-
ized only by defects in memory and attention
with increased reaction time and poor concen-
tration. One striking and frustrating problem
in liver failure is that the encephalopathy may
fluctuate widely without obvious cause. More
severe forms can lead to delirium, stupor, and
coma. The most severe forms often occur in
a cirrhotic patient with mild, chronic hepatic
encephalopathy who develops an infection, has
gastrointestinal bleeding, or takes in an exces-
sive amount of protein (so-called meat intoxi-
cation).
226
Cerebral dysfunction occurs either
when liver function fails or when the liver is
bypassed so that the portal circulation shunts
intestinal venous drainage directly into the
systemic circulation.
The major site of pathology appears to re-
side in astrocytes. In chronic liver disease, mor-
phologic changes include an increase in large
Alzheimer type-2 astrocytes.
227
The astrocytes
exhibit an alteration in the expression of ben-
zodiazepine receptors, glutamate transporters,
and glial acidic fibrillary protein. In the more
acute encephalopathy, or with deterioration
of chronic encephalopathy, permeability of the
blood-brain barrier increases without loss of
tight junctions. The resultant cerebral edema,
along with an increase in CBF, leads to intra-
cranial hypertension.
228
All these pathologic
processes are believed to be initiated by an el-
evated blood ammonia level with increased
ammonia uptake into the brain. The ammonia
is metabolized by astrocytes to glutamine. The
glutamine may be retained within the cell,
leading to swelling. There is no consistent cor-
relation between the level of ammonia and
the patient’s clinical symptoms, suggesting that
there are other factors; sepsis is certainly one.
Cytokines, particularly tumor necrosis factor
(TNF)-alpha, may play a role. Oxidative stress
may be another.
227
The clinical picture of hepatic encephalop-
athy is fairly consistent, but its onset often is
difficult to define. The incipient mental symp-
toms usually consist of a quiet, apathetic de-
lirium, which either persists for several days
or rapidly evolves into profound coma. Less
often, in perhaps 10% to 20% of cases, the
earliest symptoms are of a boisterous delirium
verging on mania, an onset suggesting rapidly
progressive liver disease. One of our patients
with chronic cirrhosis suffered two episodes of
hepatic coma spaced 2 weeks apart. The first
began with an agitated delirium; the second,
with quiet obtundation. It was impossible to
distinguish between the two attacks by bio-
chemical changes or rate of evolution. Respi-
ratory changes are a hallmark of severe liver
disease. Hyperventilation, as judged by low ar-
terial PCO
2
and high pH levels, occurs at all
depths of coma and usually becomes clinically
obvious as patients become deeply comatose.
This almost invariable hyperventilation is well
confirmed by our own series of 83 patients; all
had plasma alkalosis and all but three had
low PCO
2
values. These three exceptions had
concomitant metabolic alkalosis, correction of
which was followed by hyperventilation and
respiratory alkalosis. Although some authors
224
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
have reported instances of metabolic acidosis,
particularly in terminal patients, in our expe-
rience it is likely that encephalopathy unac-
companied by either respiratory or metabolic
alkalosis is not hepatic. Moderately obtunded
patients with hepatic encephalopathy some-
times have nystagmus on lateral gaze. Tonic
conjugate downward or downward and lateral
ocular deviation has marked the onset of coma
in several of our patients; we have once ob-
served reversible, vertical skew deviation dur-
ing an episode of hepatic coma. Focal neuro-
logic signs are not rare. In one series of
34 cirrhotic patients with 38 episodes of he-
patic encephalopathy, eight demonstrated fo-
cal signs, two hemiplegia and four hemipare-
sis, two had agnosia, and one developed a
lower limb monoplegia.
40
Other signs that
have been described include disconjugate eye
movements
229
and ocular bobbing.
230
Only
one of our patients convulsed. Others have
reported the seizure incidence to be between
2% and 33%. When seizures occur they may be
related to alcohol withdrawal, cerebral edema,
or hypoglycemia accompanying the liver fail-
ure.
231
Peripheral oculomotor paralyses are
rare in hepatic coma unless patients have con-
comitant Wernicke’s disease, and, in fact, easily
elicited brisk and conjugate oculocephalic and
oculovestibular responses are generally a strik-
ing finding in unresponsive patients with he-
patic encephalopathy. The pupils are usually
small but react to light. Asterixis
44
or mini-
asterixis
232
(see page 195) is characteristic and
frequently involves the muscles of the feet,
tongue, and jaw, as well as the hands. Patients
with mild to moderate encephalopathy are
usually found to have bilateral gegenhalten.
Decorticate and decerebrate posturing re-
sponses, muscle spasticity, and bilateral exten-
sor plantar responses frequently accompany
deeper coma.
Hepatic coma is rarely a difficult diagnosis
to make in patients who suffer from severe
chronic liver disease and gradually lose con-
sciousness displaying the obvious stigmata of
jaundice, spider angiomata, fetor hepaticus,
and enlarged livers and spleens. The diagnosis
can be more difficult in patients whose coma is
precipitated by an exogenous factor and who
have either mild unsuspected liver disease or
portal-systemic shunts. In this situation, he-
patic coma can be suspected by finding clinical
evidence of metabolic encephalopathy com-
bined with respiratory alkalosis and brisk ocu-
locephalic reflexes. The diagnosis is strength-
ened by identifying a portal-systemic shunt,
plus an elevated serum ammonia level. The
blood sugar should be measured in patients
with severe liver disease since diminished liver
glycogen stores may induce hypoglycemia and
complicate hepatic coma. When the diagnosis
remains doubtful, analysis of spinal fluid may
reveal markedly elevated levels of either glu-
tamine or alpha-ketoglutaramate (a-KGM). Of
the two, a-KGM levels give almost no false pos-
itives as well as the strongest discrimination
between patients with and without brain in-
volvement.
233
The spinal fluid in hepatic en-
cephalopathy is usually clear and free of cells,
and has a normal protein content. In severe
cases, the opening pressure may be elevated,
sometimes to very high levels. It is rare to de-
tect bilirubin in the CSF unless patients have
serum bilirubin levels of at least 4 to 6 mg/dL
and chronic parenchymal liver failure as well.
The EEG undergoes progressive slowing in he-
patic coma, with slow activity beginning sym-
metrically in the frontal leads and spreading
posteriorly as unconsciousness deepens. The
changes are characteristic but not specific;
they thus help in identifying a diffuse abnor-
mality but do not necessarily diagnose hepatic
failure.
CT or MRI is usually only helpful in ruling
out structural disease such as cerebral hema-
tomas, although in advanced stages there may
be substantial cerebral edema. In cases of se-
verely elevated ICP, compromise of CBF may
even result in global cerebral infarction. MRS
identifies a lowered myoinositol and choline
with increased glutamine levels in the basal
ganglia of patients in early stages of hepatic
encephalopathy when compared with cirrhotic
controls
234
(Figure 5–7). The basal ganglia may
be hyperintense on the T1-weighted image,
believed to be a result of manganese deposits.
Mild cerebral atrophy is frequently present.
PET scanning demonstrates hypometabolism
in frontal and parietal lobes, sometimes with
increased uptake in the infra- and medial tem-
poral regions, cerebellum, and posterior thal-
amus.
226
Fluorodeoxy PET studies of the
brain in cirrhotics shows a relative decrease
of glucose utilization in the cingulate gyrus,
the medial and lateral frontal regions, and the
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
225
4
3
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Figure 5–7. (A) Representative magnetic resonance spectrum of the human brain in vivo. Each peek is labeled with the
molecule and its structure. The absorption spectra of lipid and lactate are not observed in a normal brain. The diagonal
arrow represents Hunter’s angle, which is drawn starting from myoinositol to N-acetylaspartate. In a normal spectrum,
Hunter’s angle is 45 degrees and is formed by the peaks of myoinositol, creatinine, choline, and N-acetylaspartate. (B) MRS
in a patient with chronic hepatic encephalopathy, demonstrating the three changes characteristic of hepatic encephalopathy:
decreased myoinositol, increased glutamate-glutamine, and decreased choline. After transplant and metabolic changes, the
patient returned to normal. (From Lin et al. Neuro Rx 2005, 2, 197–214, with permission.)
226
parieto-occipital cortex, with a relative increase
in the basal ganglia, hippocampus, and cere-
bellum.
235
Mild hepatic encephalopathy may fluctuate
markedly in severity, and it is sometimes con-
fused with psychiatric disturbances or acute al-
coholism. Comatose patients in whom hepatic
coma has developed rapidly often have motor
signs (but not neuro-ophthalmologic changes)
that may suggest structural disease of the brain-
stem. They are sometimes mistakenly believed
to have subdural hematoma or basilar artery
thrombosis. In anything short of preterminal
hepatic coma, however, pupillary and caloric
responses are normal, patients hyperventilate,
and signs of rostral-caudal deterioration are
absent, all of which rule out subdural hem-
atoma. Subtentorial structural disease is ruled
out by the normal pupillary and caloric re-
sponses as well as the fluctuating and in-
constant quality of motor signs.
Renal Disease
Renal failure causes uremic encephalopathy.
The treatment of uremia, in turn, potentially
causes two additional disorders of cerebral
function: the dialysis dysequilibrium syndrome
and progressive dialysis encephalopathy. Con-
fusion, delirium, stupor, and sometimes coma
can occur with each of these conditions.
UREMIC ENCEPHALOPATHY
Before the widespread use of dialysis and re-
nal transplantation, the uremic syndrome was
common in North America and Western Eu-
rope. Today, the early correction of biochem-
ical abnormalities in patients with known acute
or chronic renal disease often prevents the de-
velopment of cerebral symptoms. As a result, the
physician more often encounters uremic en-
cephalopathy as a problem of differential diag-
nosis in patients with a systemic disease causing
multiorgan failure such as a collagen vascular
disorder, malignant hypertension, the ingestion
of a toxin, bacteremia, or disseminated anoxia-
ischemia. Most of these primary disorders them-
selves produce abnormalities of brain function,
adding to the complexities of diagnosis.
Despite extensive investigations, the precise
cause of the brain dysfunction in uremia eludes
identification. However, certain notable asso-
ciations exist. Once azotemia develops, the ure-
mic syndrome correlates only in a general way
with biochemical changes in the blood. As with
other metabolic encephalopathies, the more
rapid the development of the toxic state, the
less disturbed is the systemic chemical equi-
librium. The level of the blood urea nitrogen
(BUN) associated with uremic encephalopathy
can vary widely. Urea itself cannot be the toxin,
as urea infusions do not reproduce uremic
symptoms and hemodialysis reverses the syn-
drome, even when urea is added to the dia-
lyzing bath so as not to lower the blood level.
Although it is rare to see uremic encephalop-
athy with a creatine lower than 7.0, levels of
creatinine and other serum biochemical or
electrolyte abnormalities do not correlate with
the neurologic state. Serum sodium or potas-
sium levels can be abnormally low or high in
uremia, depending on its duration and treat-
ment, but symptoms associated with these
electrolyte changes are distinct from the typi-
cal panorama of uremic encephalopathy. Sys-
temic acidosis is not the cause; the systemic
acidosis does not involve the CNS, and treat-
ment of the reduced blood pH has no effect on
uremic cerebral symptoms.
Morphologically, the brains of patients dy-
ing of uremia show no consistent abnormal-
ity. Uremia uncomplicated by hypertensive
encephalopathy does not cause cerebral edema.
The cerebral oxygen consumption declines in
uremic stupor, just as it does in most other
metabolic encephalopathies, although perhaps
not as much as might be expected from the de-
gree of impaired alertness. Levels of cerebral
high-energy phosphates remain high during ex-
perimental uremia, while rates of glycolysis and
energy utilization are reduced below normal.
Uremic brains show a decrease in sodium and
potassium flux along with depressed sodium-
stimulated, potassium-dependent ATPase ac-
tivity. However, all the above changes appear
to be effects rather than causes of the disorder.
Calcium concentration in the brain is ele-
vated,
236
and in humans with uremia both cog-
nitive function and the EEG may be improved
by parathyroidectomy,
237
suggesting that cal-
cium plays a role. In addition, 1-guanidino com-
pounds are elevated in uremia, and this may af-
fect the release of gamma-aminobutyric acid.
238
In uremic experimental animals, tryptophan is
diminished both in plasma and brain, but levels
of its metabolic product, 3-hydroxykinurine, a
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
227
known neurotoxin, are elevated in the brain,
particularly in the striatum and the medulla.
239
Also in uremic animals, up-regulation of the
superoxide-producing enzyme nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and
down-regulation of supraoxide dismutase cause
oxidative stress in the brain via the nitration
of brain proteins and the oxidation of myelin.
Oxidative stress is also caused during dialysis
treatment by interaction of the patient’s blood
with both the dialysis membrane and dialysate
impurities.
240
Turnover of dopamine in the
striatum, mesencephalon, and hypothalamus is
decreased in uremic animals, whereas turnover
of norepinephrine and 5-hydroxytriptomine is
unchanged. Whether suppression of central
dopamine turnover contributes to motor im-
pairment in uremic animals is not clear.
241
The clinical picture of uremic encephalopa-
thy is nonspecific in most instances, although
the characteristic combination of dulled con-
sciousness, hyperpnea, and motor hyperactivity
should immediately give high suspicion to the
diagnosis. Untreated patients with uremic en-
cephalopathy have metabolic acidosis, gener-
ally with respiratory compensation. Like many
other metabolic encephalopathies, uremia, par-
ticularly when it develops rapidly, can produce
a florid delirium marked by noisy agitation,
delusions, and hallucinations. More often, how-
ever, progressive apathetic, dull, quiet confu-
sion with inappropriate behavior blends slowly
into stupor or coma accompanied by charac-
teristic respiratory changes, focal neurologic
signs, tremor, asterixis, muscle paratonia, and
convulsions or, more rarely, nonconvulsive sta-
tus epilepticus.
242
In uremic patients, both gen-
eralized convulsions and nonconvulsive status
epilepticus may be caused by antibiotics, par-
ticularly cephalosporins.
243
Untreated patients
with uremic encephalopathy all have serum
acidosis. Pupillary and oculomotor functions
are seldom disturbed in uremia, certainly not in
any diagnostic way. On the other hand, motor
changes are rarely absent. Patients with chronic
renal disease are weak and unsteady in their
movements. As uremia evolves, many of them
develop diffuse tremulousness, intense aster-
ixis, and, often, so much multifocal myoclonus
that the muscles can appear to fasciculate. Ac-
tion myoclonus (see page 195) has also been
reported.
244,245
Tetany is frequent. Stretch re-
flex asymmetries are common, as are focal neu-
rologic weaknesses; 10 of our 45 patients with
uremia had a hemiparesis that cleared rapidly
after hemodialysis or shifted from side to side
during the course of the illness.
Laboratory determinations tell one only that
patients have uremia, but do not delineate this
as the cause of coma. Renal failure is accom-
panied by complex biochemical, osmotic, and
vascular abnormalities, and the degree of azo-
temia varies widely in patients with equally se-
rious symptoms. One of our patients, a child
with nephritis, had severe delirium proceeding
to stupor despite a BUN of only 48 mg/dL.
Other patients were free of cerebral symptoms
with BUN values over 200 mg/dL. Uremia
also causes aseptic meningitis accompanied
by stiff neck with as many as 250 lymphocytes
and polymorphonuclear leukocytes/mm
3
in the
CSF. The spinal fluid protein often rises as
high as 100 mg/dL and the CSF pressure can Dostları ilə paylaş: |