of consciousness.
273
There is poor correlation
between the plasma glucose level and the se-
verity of diabetic ketoacidosis, but patients
who are comatose from severe diabetic keto-
acidosis almost always have some degree of
hyperosmolality as well. The hyperglycemia is
caused both by glucose underuse (usually from
insulin deficiency) and from overproduction of
glucose, a result of glucagon stimulating he-
patic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Spill-
age of glucose into the urine causes an osmotic
diuresis and leads to dehydration, which in turn
leads to hyperosmolarity (see page 255). Ke-
togenesis is caused by the breakdown of tri-
glycerides and release of free fatty acids into
the blood. In the absence of insulin, fatty acids
are unable to enter the citric acid cycle, but
instead enter the mitochondria, where they are
oxidized to ketone bodies, mostly acetoacetate
and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Although ketone
bodies are weak acids, as they accumulate they
overcome the body’s buffering capacity and
produce acidosis.
269
Diabetic ketoacidosis usually develops in
the insulin-dependent (type 1) diabetic but also
occurs, albeit at lesser incidence, in patients
with non-insulin-dependent (type 2) diabetes.
The most common precipitating factor is in-
fection; other precipitating causes include
failure to take hypoglycemic medications, al-
cohol abuse, pancreatitis, cerebral or cardio-
vascular events, and drugs.
269
Corticosteroids
may precipitate diabetic complications and
represent a significant problem among neuro-
oncology patients with diabetes who require
steroids to reduce brain edema from tumors.
The catabolic effect of corticosteroids provides
increased amino acid precursors for gluconeo-
genesis.
Most affected patients are awake when they
come to the hospital and have a history of thirst,
polyuria, anorexia, and fatigue. They are obvi-
ously dehydrated, and deep regular (Kussmaul)
respirations mark the hyperventilation, which
partially compensates for the metabolic aci-
dosis. The breath generally has the hallmark
fruity smell of ketosis. There is often some de-
gree of hypotension and tachycardia because
the hyperglycemic-induced osmotic diuresis
has reduced the blood volume. Such patients
are rarely febrile, and if stuporous or coma-
tose, are likely to be mildly hypothermic even
when an acute infection has precipitated the
ketoacidosis. The lack of fever, coupled with
the fact that ketoacidosis itself can produce a
leukocytosis, makes the diagnosis of a concom-
itant infection difficult. Nausea, vomiting, and
acute abdominal pain also may complicate the
early course of patients with diabetic ketoaci-
dosis; some patients develop hemorrhagic gas-
tritis.
Although it may be difficult to identify the
precipitating factors, the diagnosis of ketoaci-
dosis is rarely difficult; the obvious hyperven-
tilation in all but terminal patients should lead
the physician to suspect metabolic acidosis and
diabetic ketoacidosis as one of its common
causes (see Table 5–4, page 189).
Diabetic lactic acidosis usually occurs in
patients receiving oral hypoglycemic agents,
particularly metformin,
274
but has also been
reported in patients not being treated for dia-
betes. The mechanism of excess lactate produc-
tion is unknown. Clinical signs and symptoms
are the same as those of diabetic ketoacidosis or
any other severe metabolic acidosis, with the ex-
ception that patients with lactic acidosis are more
likely to be hypotensive or in shock. Lactic aci-
dosis in diabetics is distinguished from diabetic
ketoacidosis by the absence of high levels of ke-
tone bodies in the serum.
271
The treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis or
lactic acidosis, although usually lifesaving, can
itself sometimes have serious or even fatal con-
sequences. The CSF, which is usually normal
in the untreated patient with diabetic acidosis,
may become transiently acidotic if the serum
acidosis is treated by intravenous bicarbonate
infusion, and this may be associated with some
short-lived worsening of the patient’s state of
consciousness.
273,275
Potentially more danger-
ous is the sudden lowering of serum osmolality
that occurs as insulin lowers the serum glucose
and intravenous fluids correct the dehydrated
state. This lowering of serum osmolality causes
a shift of water into the brain, leading to ce-
rebral edema, which is sometimes fatal.
269,276
The condition should be suspected clinically
when patients recovering from diabetic ketoac-
idosis or lactic acidosis complain of headache
and become lethargic and difficult to arouse.
Assuming that no evidence of meningitis is
present, patients affected with cerebral edema
may then develop hyperpyrexia, hypotension,
tachycardia, and signs of transtentorial her-
niation, which, if not promptly and effec-
tively treated with hyperosmolar agents, can
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
233
culminate in death. At autopsy, the brain shows
edema with transtentorial herniation. In a
study of eight children and adolescents after
treatment for a diabetic ketoacidosis who were
scanned for headache and confusion, hyper-
intensity was found in the medial frontal cor-
tex on FLAIR and diffusion-weighted images,
suggesting edema. However, apparent diffu-
sion coefficient values were normal, indicating
vasogenic edema rather than cytotoxic edema
from infarction. Spectroscopy demonstrated
increased levels of myo-inositol and glucose
with decreased levels of taurine. The abnor-
malities were more marked in the frontal than
in the occipital region. Changes gradually re-
solved over time.
277
Cerebral edema in adults
is much rarer.
Also complicating the treatment of diabetic
ketoacidosis and lactic acidosis is the fact that
some patients who suffer from the syndrome
of inappropriate release of antidiuretic hor-
mone may become more easily hypo-osmolar
during rehydration. Other factors that may
complicate the course of diabetic ketoacido-
sis and add to stupor or coma include dis-
seminated intravascular coagulation (see page
217), hypokalemia, and hypophosphatemia.
Profound hypophosphatemia can cause gener-
alized convulsions, stupor, and coma.
278
Fluid
overload, acute respiratory distress syndrome,
thromboembolism including cerebral infarc-
tion, and acute gastric dilation
269
can also cause
problems.
Increasing evidence suggests that hypergly-
cemia may worsen symptoms in patients with
brain injury from either head trauma
279,280
or acute stroke
281
(see page 203)
72
or even
acutely ill patients in intensive care units.
73
Hyperglycemia is an independent risk factor
for stroke, both in people with and without
diabetes.
282
The cause of worsening brain
injury from hyperglycemia is not clear. Some
evidence suggests that preischemic hypergly-
cemia enhances the accumulation of extracel-
lular glutamate, perhaps causing excitotoxic
nerve damage.
283
Other evidence suggests that
hyperglycemia affects protein kinase and pro-
tein phosphorylation in the brain.
284
Further-
more, hyperglycemia in and of itself appears
to deleteriously affect cognition. In adult dia-
betics, when the blood glucose is greater than
15 mmol/L (270 mg/dL), cognition was dele-
teriously affected.
71
Chronic diabetes may lead
to permanent changes in cognition (diabetic
encephalopathy)
216
that are not believed to
be solely related to vascular changes. Diabetes
both facilitates long-term depression and in-
hibits long-term potentiation in the hippocam-
pus.
285
This effect on synaptic plasticity could
impair memory. In animals, hyperglycemia
during brain ischemia causes cytochrome C
release, activates caspase 3, and exacerbates
DNA fragmentation induced by ischemia,
mechanisms by which hyperglycemia may
cause neuronal apoptosis.
286
Hypoglycemia (see page 203) is a common
and serious cause of stupor or coma in diabetic
patients
269,287,288
and usually occurs in those
taking hypoglycemic agents or during the cor-
rection of severe diabetic ketoacidosis. How-
ever, spontaneous hypoglycemia, particularly
reactive hypoglycemia,
289
can be an early man-
ifestation of diabetes in patients not known to
be diabetic,
290,291
presumably a result of in-
sulin dysregulation, or in those known to be
diabetic and suffering from renal insufficiency.
We have also seen hypoglycemia as a cause of
sudden loss of consciousness in rare patients
with insulin-secreting tumors of the pancreas.
Diabetes can lead to severe renal insuffi-
ciency, producing uremic coma or hyperten-
sive encephalopathy. Severe cerebral arterio-
sclerosis associated with diabetes is a cause of
cerebral infarction that can produce coma if in
the posterior fossa distribution.
Finally, autonomic neuropathy caused by di-
abetes can be a cause of syncope or coma, re-
sulting from cardiac arrhythmia, orthostatic hy-
potension, cardiac arrest, or painless myocardial
infarction. Hypoglycemic unawareness
292
is the
failure of the patient to recognize the prodro-
mal symptoms of hypoglycemia, often leading
to stupor or coma without warning. This is par-
ticularly common in patients who take a com-
bination of hypoglycemic drugs as well as beta
blockers, which eliminate most of the warning
signs of hypoglycemia (sweating, tachycardia)
that are due to catecholamine release. How-
ever, hypoglycemic unawareness may also be a
result of autonomic neuropathy
293
or impaired
epinephrine secretion of unknown cause.
292
Adrenal Disorders
Both hyper- and hypoadrenal corticosteroid
states are occasional causes of altered con-
sciousness,
294
but the exact mechanisms re-
234
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
sponsible for those alterations are not fully
understood. Adrenal corticosteroids have pro-
found effects on the brain, influencing genes
that control enzymes and receptors for bio-
genic amines and neuropeptides, growth fac-
tors, and cell adhesion factors.
294
ADDISON’S DISEASE
295,296
The pathogenesis of the encephalopathy of ad-
renal cortical failure in Addison’s disease prob-
ably involves several factors in addition to the
removal of the effect of cortisol on brain tissue.
The untreated disease also produces hypogly-
cemia as well as hyponatremia and hyperka-
lemia due to hypoaldosteronism. Hypotension
is the rule and, if severe, this alone can cause
cerebral symptoms from orthostatic hypoten-
sion. Symptoms do not entirely clear until both
mineralocorticosteroids and glucocorticoste-
roids are replaced. Some untreated and un-
dertreated patients with Addison’s disease are
mildly delirious. In a series of 86 patients with
adrenal insufficiency associated with the anti-
phospholipid syndrome, altered mental status
was present in only 16 (19%). The major symp-
toms were abdominal pain (55%), hypotension
(54%), and nausea or vomiting (31%). Weak-
ness, fatigue, malaise, or asthenia was present
in 31%.
297
Stupor and coma usually appear, if
at all, only during addisonian crises. Changes
in consciousness, respiration, pupils, and ocu-
lar movements are not different from those of
several other types of metabolic coma. The
presence of certain motor signs, however, may
be helpful in suggesting the diagnosis. Patients
in addisonian crises have flaccid weakness and
either hypoactive or absent deep tendon re-
flexes, probably resulting from hyperkalemia;
a few suffer from generalized convulsions,
which have been attributed to hyponatremia
and water intoxication. Papilledema is occa-
sionally present and presumably results from
brain swelling caused by fluid shifts perhaps
exacerbated by increased capillary permeabil-
ity, which is normally limited by corticoste-
roids. The EEG is diffusely slow and not dif-
ferent from the pattern in other causes of
metabolic encephalopathy.
298
The neurologic signs of addisonian coma are
only rarely sufficiently distinctive to be diag-
nostic, although the combination of metabolic
coma, absence of deep tendon reflexes, and
papilledema may suggest adrenal insufficiency.
A pigmented skin and hypotension are helpful
supplementary signs and, when combined with
a low serum sodium and a high serum potas-
sium level, strongly suggest the diagnosis. The
definitive diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency is
made by the direct measurement of low blood
or urine cortisol levels.
Surgical procedures and other acute ill-
nesses put severe stress on the adrenal glands.
A patient whose adrenal function has been
marginal prior to an acute illness or surgical
procedure may suddenly develop adrenal fail-
ure with its attendant delirium. The symp-
toms may be attributed inappropriately to the
acute illness or to a ‘‘postoperative delirium’’
(see page 283) unless adrenal function studies
are carried out. Some patients without known
pre-existing adrenal insufficiency develop acute
adrenal failure following surgical procedures,
particularly cardiac surgery. Acute pituitary
failure, as in pituitary apoplexy, may also cause
an addisonian state.
The main error in differential diagnosis of
Addison’s disease is with regard to the hypo-
natremia, hyperkalemia, or hypoglycemia as
the primary cause of the metabolic coma, rather
than recognizing the combination as caused by
underlying adrenal insufficiency. This error
can be avoided only by considering Addison’s
disease as a potential cause of metabolic coma
and by heeding the other general physical signs
and laboratory values. Hypotension and hyper-
kalemia, for example, rarely combine together
in other diseases causing hyponatremia or hy-
poglycemia. Patients with Addison’s disease are
exceedingly sensitive to sedative drugs, includ-
ing barbiturates and narcotics; ingestion of stan-
dard doses of these drugs may produce coma.
CUSHING’S SYNDROME
Cushing’s syndrome,
299
whether naturally oc-
curring or iatrogenic in origin, causes in-
creased levels of blood corticosteroids, which
frequently leads to an encephalopathy charac-
terized primarily by behavioral changes (either
elation or depression) and only rarely by stupor
or coma. The changes in behavior associated
with glucocorticoid excess are almost always a
direct result of that agent on the brain. In a
pilot study assessing the psychologic effects of
high-dose steroids, we gave 100 mg of dexa-
methasone daily for 3 days to 10 patients suf-
fering from epidural spinal cord compression
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
235
and compared psychologic changes in those
patients with 10 other patients suffering from
vertebral body lesions, but not cord compres-
sion, who did not receive steroids. Four of the
10 steroid-treated patients developed behav-
ioral changes, which included hallucinations.
None displayed abnormalities of alertness or
state of consciousness. The control patients did
not develop similar symptoms.
Depression is a more common complication
in Cushing’s disease (excess pituitary adreno-
corticotropic hormone [ACTH] secretion), and
elation is more common after ingestion of glu-
cocorticoids. This finding has led some inves-
tigators to hypothesize that the depressive ef-
fect of Cushing’s disease is caused by ACTH
rather than cortisol. This hypothesis would be
consistent with the observation that patients
who have been treated with corticosteroids of-
ten become depressed as the dose is tapered and
endogenous ACTH is again generated. Similar
behavioral changes may be the presenting com-
plaint in patients with paraneoplastic Cushing’s
syndrome in which there is ectopic production
of ACTH by a tumor (usually occult).
300
Occasionally, patients with Cushing’s syn-
drome, particularly with adrenocorticotropin-
secreting tumors, develop delirium or stupor
that is not a direct result of glucocorticoid ex-
cess. Profound hypokalemic metabolic alkalo-
sis may occur after a long period of steroid
excess, and the respiratory compensation for
the alkalosis may raise PaCO
2
and lower PaO
2
,
resulting in deleterious effects on the state of
consciousness. Diabetes and hypertension with
their attendant neurologic manifestations of-
ten complicate Cushing’s syndrome.
Thyroid Disorders
Both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism in-
terfere with normal cerebral function,
301,302
but exactly how the symptoms are produced is
unclear. Thyroid hormone (or more strictly tri-
iodothyronine) binds to nuclear receptors that
function as ligand-dependent transcription fac-
tors. The hormone is absolutely essential for
development of the brain, such that in infan-
tile hypothyroidism the neurologic abnormal-
ity is rarely reversed unless the defect is al-
most immediately recognized and corrected.
303
One reason may be that thyroid hormone reg-
ulates hippocampal neurogenesis in both the
juvenile and adult brain.
304
Thyroid hormone
also has effects on cerebral metabolism
305
; hy-
pothyroidism causes a generalized decrease in
regional CBF by over 20% and a 12% decrease
in cerebral glucose metabolism without specific
regional changes. On the other hand, hyper-
thyroidism appears to have little effect on ce-
rebral metabolism.
HYPOTHYROIDISM
Coma is a rare complication of myxe-
dema
306–308
but one that is often associated
with a fatal outcome. In a series of 11 patients
either stuporous or comatose from hypothy-
roidism, three of four patients who were in a
coma on admission died, whereas only one of
seven patients with less severe changes of
consciousness died.
308
Many authors have
commented on the appearance of ‘‘suspended
animation’’ in these profoundly hypometabolic
patients. Characteristically, the patients are
hypothermic with body temperatures between
878F and 918F. They appear to hypoventilate
and, indeed, usually have elevated blood PCO
2
values and mild hypoxia. The EEG is slow and
the voltage may be either depressed or in-
creased.
309
Triphasic waves have been re-
ported.
310
The onset of myxedema coma is
usually acute or subacute and precipitated by
stresses such as infection, congestive heart fail-
ure, trauma, exposure to cold, or sedative or
anesthetic drug administration in an untreated
hypothyroid patient.
The diagnosis of myxedema in a patient in
coma is suggested by cutaneous or subcutane-
ous stigmata of hypothyroidism, plus a low body
temperature and the finding of pseudomyo-
tonic stretch reflexes (i.e., normal jerk, but slow
relaxation phase). The diagnosis is also often
suggested by the presence of elevated muscle
enzyme levels in the serum but can be con-
firmed definitively only by thyroid function
tests. As myxedema coma frequently results in
death, however, treatment with intravenous
administration of triiodothyronine or thyroxine
as well as treatment of the precipitating cause
should begin once the clinical diagnosis has
been made and blood for laboratory tests has
been drawn; treatment should not be delayed
while awaiting laboratory confirmation.
The greatest diagnostic challenge in myx-
edema coma is to regard one or more of its
complications as the whole cause of the en-
236
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
cephalopathy. Carbon dioxide narcosis may be
suspected if hypoventilation and CO
2
retention
are present, but PaCO
2
values are rarely above
50 to 55 mm Hg in hypothyroidism, and hypo-
thermia is not part of CO
2
narcosis. Some au-
thors have attributed the cause of coma and
profound hypothyroidism to respiratory failure
with carbon dioxide retention, but this is un-
likely as not all patients with myxedema hypo-
ventilate. Hyponatremia is often present in
severe myxedema, probably the result of inap-
propriate antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secre-
tion, and sometimes is severe enough to cause
seizures. Gastrointestinal bleeding and shock
also can complicate severe myxedema and di-
vert attention from hypothyroidism as a cause of
coma. Hypothermia, which is probably the most
dramatic sign, should always suggest hypothy-
roidism, but may also occur in other metabolic Dostları ilə paylaş: |