Normal brain
Normal brain
(normal osmolality)
mal osmolality)
Proper therapy
(slow correction of the
hypertonic state)
Improper
therapy
(rapid correction
of the hypotonic
state)
Immediate effect
of hypotonic state
Normal brain
(normal osmolality)
Loss of o
Loss of organic
ganic
osmo
osmolytes
(low osmolality)
w osmolality)
Loss
Loss
of sodium
of sodium,
potassium
potassium,
and chloride
hloride
(low osmolality)
w osmolality)
Osmotic
Osmotic
demyelination
elination
Loss of organic
osmolytes
(low osmolality)
Loss
of sodium,
potassium,
and chloride
(low osmolality)
Osmotic
demyelination
Water gain
ater gain
(low osmolality)
w osmolality)
Water gain
(low osmolality)
Rapid
adaptation
Slow
adaptation
Water
A
Normal brain
Normal brain
(normal osmolality)
mal osmolality)
Accu
Accumulation
ulation
of o
of organic
ganic
osmo
osmolytes
(high osmolality)
(high osmolality)
Accu
Accumulation
ulation
of elect
of electrolytes
(high osmolality)
(high osmolality)
Cerebral
Cerebral
edema
Proper therapy
(slow correction of the
hypertonic state)
Improper
therapy
(rapid correction
of the hypertonic
state)
Immediate effect
of hypertonic state
Water loss
ater loss
(high osmolality)
(high osmolality)
Normal brain
(normal osmolality)
Accumulation
of organic
osmolytes
(high osmolality)
Accumulation
of electrolytes
(high osmolality)
Cerebral
edema
Water loss
(high osmolality)
Rapid
adaptation
Slow
adaptation
Water
B
Figure 5–9. (A) Effects of hyponatremia on the brain and adaptive responses. Within minutes after the development of
hypotonicity, water gain causes swelling of the brain and a decrease in osmolality of the brain. Partial restoration of brain
volume occurs within a few hours as a result of cellular loss of electrolytes (rapid adaptation). The normalization of brain
volume is completed within several days through loss of organic osmolytes from brain cells (slow adaptation). Low
osmolality in the brain persists despite the normalization of brain volume. Proper correction of hypotonicity re-establishes
normal osmolality without risking damage to the brain. Overly aggressive correction of hyponatremia can lead to irre-
versible brain damage. (B) Effects of hypernatremia on the brain and adaptive responses. Within minutes after the
development of hypertonicity, loss of water from brain cells causes shrinkage of the brain and an increase in osmolality.
252
of water (mOsm/L). It can either be measured
directly in the serum by the freezing point
depression method or, for clinical purposes,
calculated from the concentrations of sodium,
potassium, glucose, and urea (the predominant
solutes) in the serum (assuming that there is no
intoxication). The formula below gives a rough
but clinically useful approximation of the serum
osmolality:
mOsm=kg ¼ 2(Na þ K) þ
glucose
18
þ
BUN
2:8
Sodium and potassium are expressed in
mEq/L, and the divisors convert glucose and
BUN expressed in mg/dL to mEq/L. If the glu-
cose and BUN are normal, the serum osmola-
lity can be approximated by doubling the serum
Na
þ
and adding 10.
Normal serum osmolality is 290 ± 5 mOsm/
kg. As indicated on page 248, a measured os-
molality higher than the calculated osmolality
indicates a substantial concentration of an un-
measured osmolar substance, usually a toxin.
Hypo-osmolality leads to an increased cellular
water content and tissue swelling. Only a few
agents are equally and rapidly distributed
throughout the body water (e.g., alcohol);
therefore, hyperosmolality due to excess eth-
anol does not affect water distribution within
the brain. However, the blood-brain barrier
prevents most agents from entering the CNS.
As a result, hyperosmolality due to these agents
results in redistribution of water from within
the CNS to the circulation. This property is
used clinically when mannitol (a nonmetaboli-
zable sugar) is injected intravenously to draw
fluid out of the brain and temporarily decrease
cerebral edema. However, the brain has pro-
tective mechanisms against osmolar shifts,
355
including slow redistribution of solutes, so that
rapid changes in serum osmolality produce
more prominent neurologic symptoms than
slow changes. Direct measurement of osmolar
substances using MRS demonstrates decreases
in myelinositol, choline, creatine, phosphocre-
atine, and probably glutamate/glutamine. In-
terestingly, in the patients studied who had
chronic hyponatremia (mean serum sodium 120
mEq/L), there was no increase in water con-
tent.
356
Accordingly, it is not possible to give
exact values above or below normal at which
symptoms will develop. However, subacute
changes in serum osmolalities below about 260
mEq/L, or above about 330 mEq/L over hours
or a few days, are likely to produce cerebral
symptoms. In addition, cerebral symptoms can
be produced by sudden restorations of osmo-
lality toward normal when an illness has pro-
duced a sustained osmolar shift away from nor-
mal. In extreme cases, this can cause central
pontine myelinolysis (page 171).
Hypo-osmolar States
Sodium is the most abundant serum cation,
and for practical purposes, systemic hypo-
osmolarity occurs only in hyponatremic states.
On the other hand, not all hyponatremic states
are necessarily hypo-osmolar. For example,
hyponatremia may be hyperosmolar, as with
severe hyperglycemia (see page 171), or iso-
osmolar, as, for example, during transurethral
prostatic resection when large volumes of
sodium-free irrigants are systemically ab-
sorbed.
Hyponatremia or ‘‘water intoxication’’ can
cause delirium, obtundation, and coma, exam-
ples being encountered annually in almost all
large hospitals. Symptoms result from water
excess in the brain, hence the name water in-
toxication (Figure 5–9A). The pathogenesis of
the symptoms caused by hyponatremia is pro-
bably multifactorial.
357,358
Water entering both
neurons and glia causes brain edema and thus
increased ICP. Brain herniation is probably
the event leading to death. In an attempt
to compensate, sodium and potassium are
excreted from cells via a sodium-potassium
Partial restitution of brain volume occurs within a few hours as electrolytes enter the brain cells (rapid adaptation). The
normalization of brain volume is completed within several days as a result of the intracellular accumulation of organic
osmolytes (slow adaptation). The high osmolality persists despite the normalization of brain volume. Slow correction of the
hypertonic state re-establishes normal brain osmolality without inducing cerebral edema, as the dissipation of accumu-
lated electrolytes and organic osmolytes keeps pace with water repletion. In contrast, rapid correction may result in
cerebral edema as water uptake by brain cells outpaces the dissipation of accumulated electrolytes and organic osmolytes.
Such overly aggressive therapy carries the risk of serious neurologic impairment due to cerebral edema. (From Adrogue
and Madias,
367
with permission.)
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
253
ATPase pump, altering membrane excitabil-
ity
359
and perhaps causing the seizures that
are common in severe hyponatremia. Seizures
may lead to hypoxia, but whether hypoxia plays
a significant role in the development of the
clinical symptoms is unclear.
357
Although acute hyponatremia can be fatal,
chronic hyponatremia is usually only mildly
symptomatic. The reason appears to be that the
brain adapts to the hyponatremia by decreas-
ing organic osmols within the cell, especially
amino acids.
359,360
Acute hyponatremia is rarely
a cause of emergency department visits. In a
total of 44,826 emergency department visits,
only 2.9% were hyponatremic, and of those only
11 (0.8%) of the hyponatremic patients pre-
sented with acute neurologic symptoms. The
cause of the symptomatic hyponatremia was
variable, but included increased water intake
either from polydipsia or the use of herbal teas
for weight reduction, drug abuse with MDMA,
and use of diuretic agents. Women appear more
susceptible than men. Of the 11 patients in this
series, nine were women.
361
We have also en-
countered this problem in Shapiro’s syndrome,
in which there is paroxysmal hypothermia and
sometimes hyponatremia in association with
agenesis of the corpus callosum.
362
The entry of water into the brain is pro-
moted by aquaporin, a water channel protein
present in both brain and choroid plexus.
363
In
experimental animals, hyponatremia increases
aquaporin-1 expression in the choroid plexus,
allowing more water to enter the CSF and
leading to apoptosis of cells surrounding the
ventricular system.
363
There is also increased
immunoreactivity of aquaporin-4, a channel
that allows entry of water into glia.
364
Most patients with slowly developing or only
moderately severe hyponatremia are confused
or delirious (Table 5–19).
With more severe or more rapidly devel-
oping hyponatremia, asterixis and multifocal
myoclonus often appear. Coma is a late and
life-threatening phase of water intoxication, and
both coma and convulsions are more common
with acute than chronic hyponatremia. Neu-
rologic symptoms are rare with serum sodium
above 120 mg/L and convulsions or coma gen-
erally do not occur until the serum sodium
values reach 95 to 110 mEq/L (again, the more
rapidly the serum sodium falls, the more likely
the symptoms are to occur at a higher level).
Permanent brain damage may follow hypona-
tremic convulsions, and treatment with anti-
epileptic drugs is generally useless. The pri-
mary treatment must be directed at reversing
the hyponatremia. Fraser and Arieff measured
plasma sodium in 136 patients with hypona-
tremic encephalopathy. Premenopausal wo-
men developed severe symptoms at higher
sodium levels than either postmenopausal
women or men.
357
Patient 5–21
A 33-year-old schoolteacher was admitted to the
hospital in a coma. She had been working regu-
larly until 2 days prior to admission when she
Table 5–19 Clinical Manifestations
of Hyponatremic Encephalopathy
Early*
Anorexia
Headache
Nausea
Emesis
Muscular cramps
Weakness
Advanced*
Impaired response to verbal
stimuli
Impaired response to painful
stimuli
Bizarre (inappropriate) behavior
Hallucinations (auditory or
visual)
Asterixis
Obtundation
Incontinence (urinary or fecal)
Respiratory insufficiency
Far advanced*
Decorticate and/or decerebrate
posturing
Bradycardia
Hyper- or hypotension
Altered temperature regulation
(hypo- or hyperthermia)
Dilated pupils
Seizure activity
(usually grand mal)
Respiratory arrest
Coma
Polyuria (secondary to
central diabetes insipidus)
*Any manifestation may be observed at any stage, and
some patients will have only minimal symptoms.
From Videen et al.,
356
with permission.
254
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
stayed home with nausea and vomiting. Two
hours before admission she was noted to be dys-
arthric when speaking on the telephone. Later she
was found by friends on the floor, unconscious
and cyanotic. She had three generalized convul-
sions and was brought to the hospital. Her blood
pressure was 130/180 mm Hg, her pulse 140 per
minute, her respirations 24 per minute and regu-
lar, and her body temperature 38.78C. She did not
respond to noxious stimulation. Her eyes deviated
conjugately to the left at rest but turned conju-
gately to the right with passive head turning. Her
pupils were 6 mm on the right and 5 mm on the
left, and they briskly constricted to light stimula-
tion. Both corneal reflexes were present. Her arms,
hands, and fingers were flexed with spastic rigidity
and irregular athetoid movements. Her legs and
feet were rigidly extended. There were bilateral
extensor plantar responses. She had three more
convulsions that began in the right hand and then
rapidly became generalized.
Despite extensive investigations and tests for
metabolic aberrations or poisons, the only abnor-
malities found in this woman were of acute wa-
ter intoxication. Her serum values were as fol-
lows: sodium 98 mEq/L, potassium 3.4 mEq/L, and
osmolality 214 mOsm/L (normal ¼ 290 ± 5). The
BUN was 10 mg/dL. Water restriction and infusion
of 5% NaCl returned the electrolyte values to
normal. After several days she opened her eyes,
grimaced when pinched, and moved all extremi-
ties. Her muscles remained rigid, however, espe-
cially on the right side, and she continued to have
bilateral extensor plantar responses. She had no
further seizures. Six months later she remained
severely demented and unable to care for herself.
Comment: The cause of this patient’s hypona-
tremia was never discovered. Excessive water in-
take in patients with no underlying metabolic
problem, such as psychogenic polydipsia, is some-
times the cause. Hyponatremia has no pathogno-
monic signs or symptoms to suggest it in prefer-
ence to other metabolic abnormalities, but should
be suspected in patients who suddenly develop an
unexplained encephalopathy or seizures, particu-
larly if they are receiving diuretics, have carci-
noma of the lung, or have neurologic disease. The
diagnosis is possible if the serum sodium level falls
below 120 mEq/L and highly likely when the so-
dium is below 115 mEq/L. The treatment of hy-
ponatremia is to restore serum sodium to normal
levels. This is usually done using hypertonic sa-
line.
355,357,365
However, if the hyponatremia is
corrected rapidly (greater than 25 mEq/L in the first
24 to 48 hours), patients, particularly those with
liver disease or other severe illnesses, are at risk for
developing demyelinating lesions in the brain.
357
Although called central pontine myelinolysis (see
page 171), the disorder actually can affect the
corpus callosum and other myelinated areas as
well. Clinical symptoms include dysarthria, ver-
tigo, quadriparesis, pseudobulbar palsy, confu-
sion, and coma. The disorder can lead to death.
339
Hence, rapid reversal of hyponatremia is generally
limited to patients with severe and acute symp-
toms and is controlled at about 15 mEq/L/day, al-
though there is no absolute cutoff below which
central pontine myelinolysis does not occur.
Hyperosmolar States
Physicians sometimes induce transient hyper-
osmolality by therapeutically using hypertonic
solutions containing sodium chloride or man-
nitol to treat cerebral edema. Complications of
hyperosmolarity only occasionally arise during
such efforts. Much more frequent are hyperos-
molarity problems arising with hypernatremia
or with severe hyperglycemia. Hypernatre-
mia
355
(Figure 5–9B) can be chronic or acute,
the latter type being more prone to produce
neurologic symptoms. Mild chronic hyperna-
tremia occasionally occurs in chronic untreated
diabetes insipidus caused by uncompensated
water loss, but severe chronic hypernatremia
with serum sodium levels in excess of 155 to 160
mEq/L is practically confined to the syndrome
of essential hypernatremia. Essential hyperna-
tremia usually is caused by a diencephalic
abnormality and is characterized by a lack of
thirst and a failure of ADH secretion to re-
spond to osmoreceptor stimulation. In essential
hypernatremia, serum sodium concentrations
sometimes rise in excess of 170 mEq/L.
366
We
have seen this disorder mainly in patients with
lesions of the preoptic area along the lamina
terminalis, but patients have been reported
without macroscopic lesions. Most patients with
significant hypernatremia complain of fatigue
and weakness. They usually become lethargic
when sodium levels exceed 160 mEq/L; with
elevations above 180 mEq/L, most become con-
fused or stuporous and some die. A danger is
that too rapid rehydration of such chronically
hypernatremic subjects can produce symptoms
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
255
of water intoxication in the presence of serum
sodium levels as high as 155 mEq/L (i.e., about
25 to 30 mEq below the level at which hydrating
efforts began). The problem is especially fre-
quent in children.
367,368
Severe water depletion, producing acute
hypernatremia, occurs in children with intense
diarrhea and, occasionally, in adults with dia-
betes insipidus during circumstances that im-
pair their thirst or access to adequate water
replacement. Acute hypernatremia also occurs
in obtunded patients receiving excessively con-
centrated solutions by tube feeding. As with
other hyperosmolar states, blood volumes tend
to be low because of excess free water losses
(solute diuresis). Elevated levels of urea nitro-
gen, and sometimes glucose, contribute to the
hyperosmolality. Symptoms of encephalopathy
usually accompany serum sodium levels in
excess of about 160 mEq/L or total osmolalities
of 340 or more mOsm/kg, the earliest symp-
toms being delirium or a confusional state.
Hypernatremic osmolality also should be con-
sidered when patients in coma receiving tube
feedings show unexplained signs of worsening,
especially if their treatment has included oral
or systemic dehydrating agents. In the hyper-
natremic patient, sodium enters muscle cells,
displacing potassium, and the eventual result is
hypokalemia and a hypopolarized muscle cell
that can be electrically inexcitable. Rhabdomy-
olysis may be the eventual result. Clinically pa-
tients have weak, flaccid muscles and absent
deep tendon reflexes, and the muscles are elec-
trically inexcitable.
366
Nonketotic hyperglycemic hyperosmolality
is a relatively common cause of acute or sub-
acute stupor and coma, especially in elderly
subjects.
369
The condition occurs principally
in patients with mild or non-insulin-requiring
diabetes, but has occasionally been encoun-
tered in nondiabetics with a hyperglycemic
response after severe burns. Most, but not all,
of the affected subjects are middle-aged or
older, and a large percentage have an associ-
ated acute illness precipitating the hypergly-
cemic attack. In patients with symptoms, blood
sugars may range from 800 to 1,200 mg/dL or
more with total serum mOsm/kg in excess
of 350.
270
An absence of or very low levels of
ketonemia differentiates the condition from
diabetic ketoacidosis with coma. In addition,
one finds substantially more evidence of de-
hydration and hemoconcentration than in most
examples of early diabetic ketoacidosis. The
pathogenesis of nonketotic hyperglycemia is
believed to relate to a partial insulin deficiency,
severe enough to interfere with glucose entry
into cells, but not intense enough so that acti-
vation of the hepatic ketogenic sequence oc-
curs. Certain drugs, including phenytoin, cor-
ticosteroids, and immunosuppressive agents,
enhance the tendency to hyperglycemia. Dehy-
drating agents such as mannitol given unthink-
ingly to such patients can greatly intensify the
hyperosmolality. In addition to its spontaneous
occurrences, nonketotic hyperglycemia repres-
ents a prominent risk in neurologic patients,
already obtunded from other illnesses, who
receive corticosteroid drugs that have miner-
alocorticoid effects (e.g., hydrocortisone, pred-
nisone) and whose fluids are restricted.
The clinical presentation of hyperglycemic
hyperosmolar coma consists of signs of sys- Dostları ilə paylaş: |