just lapse into stupor or coma. The patient’s
skin is usually hot and dry, although sweating
occasionally persists during the course of heat
stroke. The patient is tachycardic, may be nor-
motensive or hypotensive, and may have a se-
rum pH that is normal or slightly acidotic. The
pupils are usually small and reactive, caloric
responses are present except terminally, and
the skeletal muscles are usually diffusely hy-
potonic in contradistinction to malignant hy-
perthermia (see below). The diagnosis is made
by recording an elevated body temperature,
generally in excess of 428C.
383
As with hypo-
thermia, clinical thermometers usually reach a
maximum at 1088F or 428C, but a temperature
of this level does not mean that the patient can-
not be warmer.
Heatstroke is easily distinguished from fever
because fever of all types is governed by neural
mechanisms and does not reach 428C. It is
produced by peripheral vasoconstriction and
increased muscle tone and shivering (i.e., the
opposite pattern to hyperthermia). The main
danger of heatstroke is vascular collapse due to
hypovolemia often accompanied by ventricu-
lar arrhythmias. Patients with heat stroke must
be treated emergently with rapid intravenous
volume expansion and vigorous cooling by im-
mersion in ice water, or ice, or evaporative
cooling (a cooling blanket is far too slow). If
cardiac arrest is avoided, permanent neuro-
logic sequelae are rare. However, some pa-
tients exposed to very high temperatures for a
prolonged time are left with permanent neu-
rologic residua including cerebellar ataxia, de-
mentia, and hemiparesis.
Hyperthermia may also occur in patients
after severe traumatic brain injury.
384
In most
cases this is a fever response due to the pres-
ence of inflammatory cytokines within the
blood-brain barrier. However, in some cases
(e.g., preoptic lesions or pontine hemorrhages)
it may be due to damage to descending neural
pathways that inhibit thermogenesis. Risk
factors in patients with traumatic brain injury
include diffuse axonal injury and frontal lobe
injury of any type, but hyperthermia is com-
mon when there is subarachnoid hemor-
rhage as well. Characteristically the patient is
tachycardic, the skin is dry, and the tempera-
ture rises to a plateau that does not change for
days to a week. The fever is resistant to anti-
pyretic agents and usually occurs several days
after the injury. The prognosis in patients with
fever due to brain injury is worse than those
without it, but whether that is related to the
extent of the injury or the hyperthermia is
unclear.
384
Three related syndromes related to intake of
drugs may cause severe hyperthermia. These
syndromes are the neuroleptic malignant syn-
drome, malignant hyperthermia, and the se-
rotonin syndrome. The syndromes, although
clinically similar, can be distinguished both by
the setting in which they occur and by some
differences in their physical sign. The neuro-
leptic malignant syndrome is an idiosyncratic
reaction either to the intake of neuroleptic
drugs or to the withdrawal of dopamine ago-
nists. The disorder is rare and generally begins
shortly after the patient has begun the drug
(typical drugs include high-potency neurolep-
tics such as haloperidol, and atypical neurol-
eptics such as risperidone or prochlorperazine,
but phenothiazines and metoclopramide have
also been reported). The onset is usually acute
with hyperthermia greater than 388C and de-
lirium, which may lead to coma. Patients are
tachycardic and diaphoretic with rigid muscles
and may have dystonic or choreiform move-
ments.
385
There is usually leukocytosis and
there may be a dramatically elevated creatine
kinase level. Rhabdomyolysis leading to renal
failure may occur.
386
The diagnosis can be
made by recognizing that the patient has been
on a neuroleptic agent (usually for a short time)
or has withdrawn from dopamine agonists.
Hyperreflexia, clonus, and myoclonus, which
characterize the serotonin syndrome (see be-
low), are usually not present. The neuroleptic
malignant syndrome does not typically occur
on first exposure to the drug, or if the patient is
rechallenged, and may be due to the coinci-
dent occurrence of a febrile illness and in-
creased muscle tone in a patient with limited
dopaminergic tone.
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
261
Malignant hyperthermia occurs in about
one in 50,000 adults during induction of gen-
eral anesthesia.
387
As the name indicates, the
patients become hyperthermic and develop
tachycardia and muscle rigidity with lactic ac-
idosis. Serum creatine kinase is elevated and
patients may develop rhabdomyolysis. Pulmo-
nary and cerebral edema can develop late and
be potentially fatal.
387
The syndrome occurs
with a variety of anesthetics and muscle re-
laxants in patients who have genetic defects
of one of several receptors controlling the re-
lease of sarcoplasmic calcium in skeletal mus-
cle. When exposed to the agent, sudden in-
creases in intracellular calcium result in the
clinical findings. Dantrolene sodium is an ef-
fective antidote.
The serotonin syndrome results when pa-
tients take agents that either increase the re-
lease of serotonin or inhibit its uptake. Common
causes include cocaine and methamphetamine
as well as serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Less
common causes include dextromethorphan, me-
peridine, l-dopa, bromocriptine, tramadol, and
lithium.
387
Patients become delirious or stupor-
ous. They are febrile, diaphoretic, and tachy-
cardic and demonstrate mydriasis. Reflexes are
hyperactive with clonus. Spontaneous myoclo-
nus as well as muscular rigidity may be present.
More serious intoxication may lead to rhabdo-
myolysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalemia.
The disorder usually begins within 24 hours of
having taken the medication. It is rather abrupt
in onset; patients usually recover.
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS
OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM: BACTERIAL
This section describes a group of disorders in
which an accurate diagnosis of stupor or coma
carries the highest priority. The conditions are
relatively common and many of them perturb
or depress the state of consciousness as a first
symptom. Symptoms of CNS infection can easily
mimic those of other illnesses. Quick and accu-
rate action is nowhere more necessary, because
proper treatment often is brain saving or even
lifesaving, whereas delays or errors often result
in irreversible neurologic deficits or death.
CNS infections in immunocompromised pa-
tients are particularly difficult to diagnose and
treat for two reasons: (1) symptoms and signs,
save for delirium or stupor, may be absent and
the patient may have other reasons for being en-
cephalopathic. Furthermore, the immunosup-
pression may prevent the patient from mounting
an inflammatory response and thus the spinal
fluid may not suggest infection. In addition,
imaging may either be normal or nonspecific.
(2) The organisms infecting the CNS in an im-
munocompromised patient are different from
those encountered in the general population.
However, being aware of the nature of the
immunocompromise, and the variety of organ-
isms that tend to affect such patients, can often
lead to an effective early diagnosis and treat-
ment.
388,389
Acute Bacterial Leptomeningitis
Acute leptomeningeal infections frequently
cause alterations in consciousness. In one se-
ries of 696 episodes of community-acquired
acute bacterial meningitis, 69% of patients
had some alteration of consciousness and 14%
were comatose. Seizures had occurred in 5%.
390
In a review of 317 patients with CNS Listeria,
59 (19%) were stuporous and 76 (24%) were
comatose.
391
Leptomeningeal infections pro-
duce stupor and coma in one of several ways,
as follows.
TOXIC ENCEPHALOPATHY
Both the bacterial invaders and the inflam-
matory response to them can have profound
effects on cerebral metabolism, causing neu-
ronal injury or death. The injury is mediated
by a release of reactive oxygen species, prote-
ases, cytokines, and excitatory amino acids.
Both apoptosis and necrosis can occur.
392
BACTERIAL ENCEPHALITIS
AND VASCULITIS
The bacteria that cause acute leptomeningitis
often invade the cerebrum, penetrating via the
Virchow-Robin perivascular spaces and caus-
ing inflammation of both penetrating menin-
geal vessels and the brain itself.
393
The effects
on the brain are both vascular and metabolic.
Vasculitis induces diffuse or focal ischemia of
the underlying brain and can lead to focal areas
of necrosis. Diffuse necrosis of the subcortical
262
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
white matter has also been reported as a com-
plication of such bacterial vasculitis. Cerebral
veins may be occluded, as well as arteries.
393
INAPPROPRIATE THERAPY
The fluid therapy employed for patients with
acute leptomeningitis carries a potential risk of
inducing acute water intoxication unless care-
fully regulated. Many patients with bacterial
meningitis suffer from inappropriate ADH se-
cretion, which leads to hyponatremia and cere-
bral edema when excessive amounts of water
are infused.
CEREBRAL HERNIATION
As a result of the above mechanisms, severe
leptomeningeal infection is often accompanied
by considerable cerebral edema, especially in
young persons. Cerebral edema is an almost
invariable finding in fatal leptomeningitis, and
the degree may be so great that it causes both
transtentorial and cerebellar tonsillar hernia-
tion. In a series of 87 adults with pneumococcal
meningitis, diffuse brain edema was encoun-
tered in 29%.
393
In addition, leptomeningeal in-
fections occlude CSF absorptive pathways and,
depending on the site of occlusion, cause either
communicating or noncommunicating hydro-
cephalus in about 15% of patients.
393
Shunting
of the ventricles may be required to relieve the
pressure. The enlargement of the ventricles by
nonreabsorbed CSF adds to increased ICP and
increases the risk of cerebral herniation.
All of these mechanisms lead to a form of stu-
por and coma that closely resembles that pro-
duced by other metabolic diseases, leading us
to include acute leptomeningitis in this section.
However, it is important not to lose sight of the
possibility that as the patient’s condition wors-
ens,astructural component may alsosupervene.
The meningeal infections that produce coma
are principally those caused by acute bacterial
organisms. The major causes of community-
acquired bacterial meningitis include Strepto-
coccus pneumoniae (51%) and Neisseria me-
ninigitis (37%).
390
In immunocompromised
patients, Listeria monocytogenes meningitis
accounts for about 4% of cases.
391,394,395
Lis-
teria meningitis may be noticeably slower in its
course, but has a tendency to cause brainstem
abscesses. Staphylococcus aureus and, since a
vaccine became available, Haemophilus influ-
enzae are uncommon causes of community-
acquired meningitis.
390
CLINICAL FEATURES
The clinical appearance of acute meningitis is
one of an acute metabolic encephalopathy with
drowsiness or stupor accompanied by the toxic
symptoms of chills, fever, tachycardia, and ta-
chypnea. Most patients have either a headache
or a history of it. However, the classic triad of
fever, nuchal rigidity, and alteration of mental
status was present in only 44% of patients in a
large series of community-acquired meningi-
tis.
390
Focal neurologic signs were present in
one-third and included cranial nerve palsies,
aphasia, and hemiparesis; papilledema was
found in only 3%. CT or MRI may show en-
hancement in cerebral sulci (Figure 5–10).
Meningitis, particularly in children, can cause
acute brain edema with transtentorial hernia-
tion as the initial sign. Clinically, such children
rapidly lose consciousness and develop hyper-
pnea disproportionate to the degree of fever.
The pupils dilate, at first moderately and then
widely, then fix, and the child develops decer-
ebrate motor signs. Urea, mannitol, or other
hyperosmotic agents, if used properly, can
prevent or reverse the full development of the
ominous changes that are otherwise rapidly
fatal. In this situation, some believe that a di-
agnostic lumbar puncture may lead to trans-
tentorial herniation and death. On the other
hand, delaying lumbar puncture to procure a
CT scan places the patient at major risk, and if
the edema is diffuse, the scan does not indicate
the risk of herniation.
396–398
Hence, it is now
standard practice to draw blood cultures, start
empiric antibiotic therapy, procure a CT scan,
and then do a lumbar puncture if there does
not appear to be evidence of marked cerebral
edema or shift.
399
In elderly patients, bacterial meningitis
sometimes presents as insidiously developing
stupor or coma in which there may be focal
neurologic signs but little evidence of severe
systemic illness or stiff neck. In older patients,
a stiff neck may result from cervical osteoar-
thritis. However, the neck is usually also stiff in
the lateral direction as well as in the anterior-
posterior direction, a finding not present in
meningitis. Furthermore, a positive Kernig
sign (resistance to extension of the knee when
the hip is flexed) or Brudzinski sign (flexion
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
263
of the hips when the neck is flexed) is patho-
gnomonic of meningeal irritation.
In one series, 50% of patients with meningitis
were admitted to the hospital with an incorrect
diagnosis.
397,398
Such patients can be regarded
incorrectly as having suffered a stroke, but this
error is readily avoided by accurate spinal fluid
examinations. Another pitfall is the difficulty of
assessing the CSF when blood due to a trau-
matic lumbar puncture obscures the elevated
spinal fluid white cell count. With acute sub-
arachnoid bleeding, there is approximately one
white cell to each 1,000 red cells in the CSF.
When there are more than two or three white
cells beyond this ratio, the patient should be
treated as if there were meningitis until proven
otherwise by a repeat tap or negative cultures.
Patients are occasionally observed who de-
velop the encephalopathy of meningitis before
white cells appear in the lumbar spinal fluid.
The series of Carpenter and Petersdorf
400
in-
cludes several such cases, and the following is
an example from our own series.
Patient 5–23
A 28-year-old man complained of mild diurnal
temperature elevation for several days with inter-
mittent sore throat, chills, and malaise. He had no
muscle or joint complaints or cough, but his chest
felt tight. He saw his physician, who found him to
be warm and appear acutely ill, but he lacked
significant abnormalities on examination, except
that his pharynx and ear canals were reddened. A
diagnosis of influenza was made, but the next af-
ternoon he had difficulty thinking clearly and was
admitted to the hospital.
His blood pressure was 90/70 mm Hg, pulse
120 per minute, respirations 20 per minute, and
body temperature 38.68C. He was acutely ill,
restless, and unable to sustain his attention to co-
operate fully in the examination. No rash or pe-
techiae were seen. There was slight nuchal rigidity
and some mild spasm of the back and hamstring
muscles. The remainder of the physical and the
neurologic examination was normal. The white
blood count was 18,000/mm
3
with a left shift.
Urinalysis was normal. A lumbar puncture was
performed with the patient in the lateral recum-
bent position; the opening pressure was 210 mm,
the closing pressure was 170 mm, and the clear
CSF contained one red cell and no white cells. The
next morning the protein was reported as 80 mg/
dL, the glucose content as 0.
The first evening at 9 p.m. his temperature had
declined to 388C and he was seemingly improved.
Two hours later he had a chill followed by severe
headache and he became slightly irrational. The
body temperature was 37.68C. There was an
Figure 5–10. (A) A contrast-enhanced T1 image of a
patient with acute bacterial meningitis. There is marked
enhancement in several of the cerebral sulci. The cortex
and the underlying brain appear normal. Hyperintensity
in cerebral sulci is apparent on the FLAIR (B) image.
(Magnetic resonance image courtesy Dr. Linda Hier.)
264
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
increase in the nuchal rigidity with increased
hamstring and back muscle spasm. The white
blood count had increased to 23,000/mm
3
.
Shortly before 1:30 a.m., he became delirious and
then comatose with irregular respiration. The pu-
pils were equal and reactive; the optic fundi were
normal; the deep tendon reflexes were equal and
active throughout. The left plantar response was
extensor, the right was equivocal. Because of the
high white cell count, fever, and coma, adminis-
tration of large doses of antibiotics was started, but
the diagnosis was uncertain.
The next morning the spinal fluid and throat
cultures that had been obtained the evening before
were found to contain Neisseria meningitides and
a lumbar puncture now revealed purulent spinal
fluid containing 6,000 white cells/mm
3
under a
high pressure, with high protein and low glucose
contents.
Comment: The error in diagnosis in this patient
was in failing to ensure that a CSF Gram stain,
protein, and glucose were done and checked im-
mediately by the physicians, who were lured into
a false sense of security by the absence of white
blood cells in the CSF. In addition, if meningitis or
other CNS infection is suspected, even if no cells
are found in the initial examination, the lumbar
puncture should be repeated in about 6 hours.
Patients with overwhelming meningococcal sep-
ticemia, and few or no polymorphonuclear leu-
kocytes in their spinal fluid, represent the worst
prognostic group of patients with acute bacterial
meningitis. Although a high concentration of poly-
morphonuclear leukocytes and a decreased spi-
nal fluid glucose strongly suggest the diagnosis
of bacterial meningitis, viral infections including
mumps and herpes simplex can also occasionally
cause hypoglycorrhachia.
Chronic Bacterial Meningitis
Although there are many bacterial causes of
chronic meningitis, including syphilis, Lyme
disease, nocardia, and actinomycosis, only two
commonly come into the differential diagnosis
of impairment of consciousness.
TUBERCULOUS MENINGITIS
Although tuberculosis is usually considered a
subacute or chronic disease, tuberculous men-
ingoencephalitis may have a fulminant course.
Fewer than 50% of adults with meningoen-
cephalitis have a history of pulmonary tuber-
culosis.
401
On examination patients are lethar-
gic, stuporous, or comatose with nuchal rigidity.
The CSF is characterized by an elevated open-
ing pressure with one to 500 white blood cells,
which are mainly lymphocytes or monocytes,
resembling more an aseptic than an infective
meningitis. The protein concentration is ele-
vated (above 100 mg/dL) and the glucose con-
centration is usually decreased, but rarely below
20 mg/dL. Organisms are seen on smear in a
minority of patients. Cultures of the CSF may
be negative, but even if positive, take several
weeks to develop. Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) techniques are rapid and specific; how-
ever, sensitivity has been reported to range from
25% to 80%.
401
Neuroimaging is nonspecific,
demonstrating contrast enhancement of the me-
ninges and often hydrocephalus.
Because the cell count in the spinal fluid is
often low or even absent, the disorder may be
confused with other causes of so-called aseptic
meningitis including sarcoidosis, leptomenin-
geal metastases, Wegener’s granulomatosis, and
Behc¸et’s disease. The severity of the illness
should lead one to suspect the possibility of
tuberculosis. Untreated, patients usually die
within a few weeks.
WHIPPLE’S DISEASE
Whipple’s disease is a systemic inflammatory
disorder caused by a bacterium, Trophermyma
whippleii.
402
It most commonly affects middle-
aged men. There may be systemic symptoms
including weight loss, abdominal pain, diar-
rhea, arthralgias, and uveitis. However, in some
cases the symptoms are restricted to the CNS
and often are characterized by encephalopathy
or even coma.
403
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