encephalopathies, especially hypoglycemia, de-
pressant drug poisoning, primary hypothermia
due to exposure, and brainstem infarcts.
Hashimoto’s encephalopathy is an encepha-
lopathy associated with autoimmune thyroiditis
characterized by high titers of antithyroid anti-
bodies in the serum.
311,312
Patients may be hy-
pothyroid, but also may be euthyroid or even
hyperthyroid. The disorder is a relapsing and
remitting encephalopathy, and may be charac-
terized by seizures, either focal or generalized;
myoclonus; confusion; and in some instances
stupor and coma. There may be associated py-
ramidal tract and cerebellar signs. MRI is gen-
erally uninformative; in the few cases that have
come to autopsy, there is no evidence of vas-
culitis.
313
The EEG shows generalized slowing
with frontal intermittent rhythmic delta activity
and often triphasic waves.
314
Antithyroid anti-
bodies are found in serum and spinal fluid, and
antineuronal antibodies have also been reported
in some cases, although the pathophysiologic
significance of either type of antibody for the
encephalopathy is not clear.
313
The importance
of the syndrome is that it is steroid responsive
and should be suspected when a hypothyroid
patient does not show an improved level of
consciousness in response to thyroxin. The di-
agnosis is established by elevated thyroid anti-
bodies and responsiveness to steroids.
HYPERTHYROIDISM
Thyrotoxicosis usually presents with signs of
increased CNS activity (i.e., anxiety, tremor, or
hyperkinetic behavior).
302,306
Subtle changes
in cognitive function accompany the more ob-
vious emotional disturbances. Rarely, in ‘‘thy-
roid storm,’’ these symptoms can progress to
confusion, stupor, or coma.
306
Thyroid storm
usually develops in a patient with pre-existing
thyrotoxicosis, often partially treated, who
encounters precipitating factors such as an in-
fection or a surgical procedure. The early
clinical picture is dominated by signs of hy-
permetabolism. Fever is invariably present,
profuse sweating occurs, there is marked tachy-
cardia, and there may be signs of pulmonary
edema and congestive heart failure. A more
difficult problem is so-called apathetic thyro-
toxicosis.
315,316
Such patients are usually el-
derly and present with neurologic signs of de-
pression and apathy. If untreated, the clinical
symptoms progress to delirium and finally to
stupor and coma. Nothing distinctive marks
the neurologic picture. Hypermetabolism is
not clinically prominent, nor can one observe
the eye signs generally associated with thyro-
toxicosis. However, almost all patients show
evidence of severe weight loss and have car-
diovascular symptoms, particularly atrial fibril-
lation and congestive heart failure. Many have
signs of a moderately severe proximal myopa-
thy. The diagnosis is established by obtaining
tests that reflect thyroid hyperfunction and the
neurologic signs are reversed by antithyroid
treatment.
Pituitary Disorders
Pituitary failure can be associated with stupor
or coma under two circumstances: (1) Pituitary
apoplexy (Figure 5–8) is the term applied to
hemorrhage or infarction usually of a pituitary
tumor, but less commonly of the normal pitui-
tary gland. Encephalopathy is caused by an
acutely expanding mass lesion compressing the
diencephalon or by inflammation due to ejec-
tion of noxious substances (blood or necrotic
tissue) into the subarachnoid space. Patients
generally present with headache, vomiting, pho-
tophobia, fever, visual loss, and ocular palsies.
About 10% of patients are stuporous or co-
matose, in part due to the subarachnoid in-
flammation, and in part due to pituitary failure
resulting from the hemorrhagic infarct.
306,317
Sheehan’s syndrome, also called postpartum
pituitary necrosis, is another form of pituitary
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
237
apoplexy. The acute form begins hours to days
after delivery with signs of acute adrenal in-
sufficiency (see above). In the past, symptoms
began in the hospital before the patient went
home, but because of the advent of short ob-
stetric stays, most patients return home and
then present to an emergency department with
hypotension,tachycardia,hypoglycemia,fatigue,
nausea, and vomiting; unrecognized, the dis-
ease is fatal.
318
(2) Patients with panhypopitu-
itarism, if the levels of corticosteroids or thyroid
hormone fall low enough or if there is a dis-
turbance of water balance, may become stu-
porous or comatose. In addition, similar to pa-
tients with primary adrenal or thyroid failure,
patients with pain are sensitive to narcotic and
sedative drugs.
Pituitary excess causes encephalopathy by
hyperfunction of the pituitary-adrenal axis
(i.e., during Cushing’s syndrome; see previous
section).
Cancer
Diffuse encephalopathy leading to delirium,
stupor, or coma is frequently seen in patients
with disseminated cancer.
319
About 20% of the
neurologic consultations in a cancer hospital
are requested for the evaluation of confused or
stuporous patients.
320
The causes of the men-
tal changes are many (Table 5–11) and may
Figure 5–8. Coronal (A) and sagittal (B) unenhanced T1
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of a patient with
pituitary apoplexy. This 76-year-old male had been hos-
pitalized for treatment of rectal carcinoma when he sud-
denly complained of headache, visual blurring, diplopia,
and confusion. The MRI revealed a sellar and suprasellar
mass compressing the optic chiasm and the cavernous sin-
uses. Surgery revealed a necrotic lesion with a few cells that
probably represented a pituitary adenoma.
Table 5–11 Some Neurologic
Complications of Cancer Causing
Stupor or Coma
Lesion
Example
Primary brain tumor
Hypothalamic glioma
Gliomatosis cerebri
Brain metastasis
Carcinomatous encephalitis
Leptomeningeal
metastasis
Hydrocephalus
Vascular disease
Large stroke
Nonbacterial
thromboendocarditis
Cerebral venous
occlusion
Multiple small
strokes
Disseminating intravascular
coagulation
Intravascular lymphoma
Infections
Viral
Progressive multifocal
encephalopathy
Herpes simplex/zoster
Fungi
Aspergillus
Bacteria
Listeria
Side effects of
therapy
Radiation
Radiation dementia
Chemotherapy
MTX leukoencephalopathy
Metabolic
Hypoglycemia
Liver, renal failure
Nutritional
Wernicke’s
Pellagra
B
12
deficiency
encephalopathy
238
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
include all those discussed in this book.
321
In a
series of 140 patients with encephalopathy and
cancer, two-thirds had multiple causes of their
encephalopathy. However, when a single cause
was identified, multiple brain metastases were
the most common. In some cases, the metas-
tases are leptomeningeal and may be discov-
ered only by lumbar puncture. Other single
causes included drugs, sepsis, multiorgan fail-
ure, and hypoxia.
321
As with other patients suf-
fering from metabolic encephalopathy, the
cancer patient can often be restored to a fully
sentient state if the underlying metabolic cause
is corrected.
Patient 5–16
A 60-year-old man with multiple myeloma be-
came obtunded while in the hospital. Treatment
with chemotherapy had produced a severe pan-
cytopenia, which had led to pneumonia. In addi-
tion, he suffered from renal failure and required
intermittent hemodialysis. At 6:50 a.m. he was
given 4 mg of levorphanol because of low back
pain. Early in the afternoon he began hemodialy-
sis, but he became hypotensive and hemodialysis
was stopped. He was noted early in the evening to
be markedly obtunded, with the right eye slightly
deviated outward and upward. His respirations
‘‘appeared agonal.’’ On neurologic examination
the patient was stuporous. With vigorous stimuli,
however, he could be aroused to say his name and
to identify Memorial Hospital. No other verbal
responses could be secured. His pupils were 1.5
mm and reactive. In the resting position, the left
eye was straight ahead and the right eye was
slightly externally and superiorly deviated. Ice
water calorics yielded a few beats of nystagmus in
the appropriate direction. His respirations were 8
per minute, irregular, and shallow. Bilateral as-
terixis and extensor plantar responses were pres-
ent. Laboratory abnormalities that morning had
included a white blood cell count of 1,100/mm
3
, a
hemoglobin of 9.3 g/dL, and platelets of 21,000/
mm
3
, and d-dimer concentrations (fibrin degra-
dation products suggesting mild disseminated in-
travascular coagulation) were elevated. The serum
sodium was 130 mEq/L, BUN 82 mg/dL, creati-
nine 5.7 mg/dL, total protein 8.1 g/L with an al-
bumin of 3.0 g, and alkaline phosphatase of 106.
Because of the small pupils and slow and shallow
respiration, despite the pneumonia, the patient
was given 0.4 mg of naloxone intravenously. The
pupils dilated to 6 mm, respirations went from 8 to
24 per minute, and he became awake and alert,
complaining of the low back pain for which he
had been given the drug that morning. The fol-
lowing morning he again became obtunded but
less than the evening before. Pupils were 3 mm,
and respirations were 20 and relatively deep.
Another 0.4 mg of naloxone was given, the pupils
dilated to 7 mm, respirations accelerated to 30 and
deeper, and again he became alert and oriented.
Comment: The clues to opioid overdosage in
this patient were the small pupils and the shallow,
irregular respirations despite pneumonia. The pa-
tient’s other metabolic defects made him particu-
larly sensitive to small doses of opioids, as did the
fact that he had not received the drug in the past
for pain and thus had not developed tolerance to
it. Furthermore, the long action of levorphanol
induced a relapse the next morning after the ef-
fects of the naloxone had worn off.
Patient 5–17
A 42-year-old woman with breast cancer known
to be metastatic to bone was admitted to the
hospital because of stupor. When stimulated vig-
orously she would answer with her name, but
could not answer other questions or follow com-
mands. On examination there was bilateral pa-
pilledema. Pupils were 2 mm bilaterally, with
roving eye movements and full responses to ocu-
locephalic maneuvers. There were diminished
tendon reflexes in the left triceps and right knee
jerk. Toes were upgoing. A CT scan with contrast
disclosed several small enhancing lesions along
the surface of the cerebral cortex. Lumbar punc-
ture showed increased opening pressure of 300
mm/CSF, protein of 228, 14 WBCs, no RBCs, and
multiple large atypical cells, which, on cytologic
examination, were similar to the adenocarcinoma
cells of her breast cancer. She was treated with
dexamethasone and whole brain radiation ther-
apy, resulting in rapid clearing of her cogni-
tive function. Intraventricular chemotherapy with
methotrexate and cytosine arabinoside was initi-
ated. When she died of a pulmonary embolus 18
months later, autopsy revealed no evidence of
residual cancer in the brain.
Comment: Leptomeningeal metastasis from can-
cer generally presents with multilevel dysfunction
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
239
of the CNS, spinal cord, and spinal nerve roots.
The loss of several tendon reflexes in this setting
is a critical clue to the diagnosis. Radiologic eval-
uation may show nothing, or it may reveal super-
ficial tumor implants along the surface of the
brain, the meninges, or the spinal roots. Although
often a sign of far advanced cancer, in occasional
patients, particularly with breast cancer or lym-
phoma, vigorous treatment may clear the tumor
cells and dramatically improve and extend the pa-
tient’s life.
EXOGENOUS INTOXICATIONS
Sedative and Psychotropic Drugs
Many drugs in common use can cause delirium,
stupor, or coma when taken in large amounts
(Table 5–12).
The list of such drugs is legion; also, the
agents favored by drug abusers change from
time to time and differ in different geographic
areas. Agents causing delirium or coma may
include (1) medicinal agents prescribed but
taken in overdose, (2) medicinal agents pro-
cured illicitly (e.g., opioids), (3) agents sub-
stituted for alcohol such as ethylene glycol and
methanol, and (4) illicit drugs (e.g., ‘‘party’’ or
‘‘club’’ drugs).
322
If it is known what agents the
patient has taken, there is not much of a diag-
nostic problem. However, patients who are stu-
porous but arousable may deny drug ingestion
and, if comatose, no history may be available
at all.
A few drugs such as salicylates and acet-
aminophen can be tested at the bedside.
27
Combined HPLC-immunoenzymatic screen-
ing is available in some emergency depart-
ments to detect amphetamines, barbiturates,
benzodiazepines, cocaine, opioids, and phen-
cyclidine and other drugs in 20 to 45 min-
utes.
323
Others can be inferred from the phys-
ical examination (e.g., pupil size and response
to antidotes) or rapidly procured laboratory
tests. Examples include an anion gap, uniden-
tifiable osmoles, or an oxygen saturation gap
324
(Table 5–13). Measurement of the anion gap
helps in establishing a diagnosis. An increased
anion gap is found in toxic ingestion of drugs
such as ethylene glycol, propylene glycol,
methanol, paraldehyde, and salicylates. A de-
creased anion gap may be found after inges-
tion of lithium, bromides, or iodides.
324
An in-
creased osmol gap (see page 241) can be found
with ethanol and ethylene ingestion. The so-
called oxygen saturation gap exists when there is
more than a 5% difference between calculated
saturation, as measured from arterial blood, and
that as measured by an oximeter. If the oximeter
reading is too high after carbon monoxide in-
toxication, there may be severe methemoglobi-
nemia. In addition, if the venous blood has a
high oxygen content with the appearance of ar-
terial blood, one should consider cyanide or hy-
drogen sulfide poisoning.
324
However, in many instances, an accurate
immediate diagnosis leans heavily upon the
physical findings and clinical deduction. Lab-
oratory confirmation of the clinical diagnosis is
desirable, but the delay in conducting the tests
often means that the information becomes
available too late to be useful in guiding treat-
ment. Furthermore, blood levels of sedatives
Table 5–12 Drugs Causing Delirium,
Stupor, or Coma
Medicinal agents
Amphetamines
Anticholinergics
Psychotropic
Tricyclics
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Lithium
Phenothiazine
Sedatives
Benzodiazepines
Barbiturates
Glutethimide
Methaqualone
Opioids
Acetaminophen
Anticonvulsants
Nonmedical agents
Alcohols
Alcohol
Ethylene glycol/propylene glycol
Methanol
Illicit drugs
Cocaine
Methamphetamine
Gamma-hydroxybutyrate
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
Phencyclidine
Ketamine
Rohypnol
240
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
or alcohol sometimes provide a poor guide
to the depth or anticipated duration of coma.
Several reasons account for the potential dis-
crepancy. Persons who chronically take these
drugs develop a tolerance to their effects and
require larger doses with resulting higher blood
levels to produce coma. Pharmacologic inter-
action between drug mixtures and the inability
to anticipate the effects of still unabsorbed ma-
terial in the gut further interfere with making a
correlation.
Sedatives such as benzodiazepines, neuro-
leptics, antihistamines, alcohol, and sedating
antidepressants, as well as older drugs such as
meprobamate and bromides, can all produce
coma if enough is taken. The mechanism of
action of each drug depends partly on its
structure and partly on the dose. Many of the
sedative drugs cause delirium or coma by in-
creasing GABAergic input to the ascending
arousal system, thus extinguishing wakeful-
ness.
324,326
Antidepressant drugs interfere with
the reuptake of neurotransmitters, including se-
rotonin and norepinephrine, and neuroleptics
block dopamine receptors, but the more se-
dating ones also have antihistamine and anti-
cholinergic effects. These effects may produce
autonomic dysfunction, and in fact, the most
dangerous effect of overdose with tricyclic an-
tidepressants is their cardiotoxicity.
Overdoses with most depressant drugs pro-
duce fairly consistent clinical findings; individ-
ual drugs usually cause relatively minor clinical
differences. Almost all of these agents depress
vestibular and cerebellar function as readily as
cerebral cortical function so that nystagmus,
ataxia, and dysarthria accompany or even pre-
cede the first signs of impaired consciousness.
Larger amounts of drug produce coma, and at
this quantity all the agents depress brainstem
autonomic responses. With few exceptions,
such as the benzodiazepines or neuroleptics,
respiration tends to be depressed at least as
much as and sometimes more than somatic
motor function. The pupils are usually small
and reactive and ciliospinal reflexes are pre-
served. The oculocephalic responses are de-
pressed or absent, and the oculovestibular re-
sponses to cold caloric testing are depressed
and may be lost altogether in deep coma. Pa-
tients with depressant drug poisoning are usu-
ally flaccid with stretch reflexes that are di-
minished or absent. This typical picture is not
always immediately seen, especially if coma
develops rapidly after the ingestion of a fast-
acting barbiturate such as secobarbital or pen-
tobarbital. In such cases, respiratory depres-
sion may ensue almost as rapidly as does un-
consciousness; signs in the motor system may
initially evolve as if function was being de-
pressed in a rostral-caudal fashion, with a brief
appearance of hyperreflexia and even clonus
and extensor plantar responses. Failure to rec-
ognize this short-lived phase (it rarely lasts
more than 30 to 45 minutes) as being due to
depressant drugs can be fatal if one leaves
the patient temporarily unattended or delays
needed ventilatory assistance. The identifying
clue to the toxic-metabolic basis of the changes
in such cases is that the pupillary reflexes are
preserved and the motor signs are symmetric.
Treatment is discussed in Chapter 7.
Supportive care involves prevention of fur-
ther absorption of the poison, elimination of
the toxin that has already been absorbed, and,
when necessary, supportive respiration, blood
pressure, and cardiac rhythm. Some toxins have
specific antidotes that have been recently re-
viewed.
324,327
Table 5–13 Laboratory Clues to
Specific Toxins
Anion gap
Increased
Ethylene glycol
Methanol
Paraldehyde
Salicylate
Acetaminophen
Cocaine
Decreased
Bromides
Lithium
Iodide
Osmolal gap
Increased
Ethanol
Ethylene glycol
Propylene glycol
O
2
saturated gap
Increased
Carbon monoxide
Methemoglobin
Cyanide
Hydrogen sulfate
Modified from Fabbri et al.
323
and Mokhlesi and or-
bridge,
324
with permission.
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
241
Table 5–14 Clues to Specific Drugs Frequently Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
Drug
Chemical
Diagnosis
Behavior
Physical Signs
Amphetamine
Blood or urine
Hypertension; aggressive,
sometimes paranoid,
repetitive behavior
progressing into agitated
paranoid delirium;
auditory and visual
hallucinations
Hyperthermia, hypertension,
tachycardia, arrhythmia;
pupils dilated; tremor,
dystonia, occasionally
convulsions
Cocaine
None available
Similar to above but more
euphoric, less paranoid
Variable
Club drugs such as
Methylenedioxy-
methamphetamine
(MDMA),
phenocyclidine
Blood or urine
Confused, disoriented,
perceptual distortions,
distractible, withdrawn
or eruptive; can lead to
accidents or violence
See text
Atropine-scopolamine
None available
Delirium; often agitated;
responding to visual
hallucinations;
drowsiness; rarely coma
Fever, flushed face; dilated
pupils; sinus or
supraventricular
tachycardia; hot dry skin
Tricyclic
antidepressants
Blood or urine
Drowsiness; delirium;
agitation; rarely coma
Fever; supraventricular
tachycardia; conduction
defects; ventricular
tachycardia or fibrillation;
hypotension; dystonia
Phenothiazines
Blood
Somnolence; coma rare
Arrhythmias, hypotension,
dystonia (see text
page 261)
Lithium
Blood
Lethargic confusion, mute
state, eventually coma.
Multifocal seizures can
occur. Onset can be
delayed by hours or
days after overdose
Appearance of distraction;
roving conjugate eye
movement; pupils intact;
paratonic resistance;
tremors, akathisia
Benzodiazepines
Blood or urine
Stupor, rarely unarousable
Essentially no cardiovascular
or respiratory depression
Methaqualone
Blood or urine
Hallucinations and
agitation blend into
depressant drug coma
Mild: resembles barbiturate
intoxication. Severe:
increased tendon reflexes,
myoclonus, dystonia,
convulsions. Tachycardia
and heart failure
Barbiturates
Blood or urine
Stupor or coma
Hypothermia; skin cool and
dry; pupils reactive; doll’s
eyes absent; hyporeflexia;
flaccid hypotension; apnea
Alcohol
Blood or breath
Dysarthria, ataxia, stupor.
Rapidly changing level
of alertness with
stimulation
With stupor: hypothermia,
skin cold and moist;
pupils reactive, midposition
to wide; tachycardia
Opioids/opiates
Blood or urine
Stupor or coma
Hypothermia; skin cool and
moist; pupils symmetrically
pinpoint reactive; bradycardia,
hypotension; hypoventilation;
pulmonary edema
242
Alcoholic stupor can be a difficult diagnosis
because so many patients who are unconscious
for other reasons (e.g., head trauma or drug
ingestion) will have the odor of ‘‘alcohol’’ (ac-
tually caused by impurities in the liquor) on
their breath. Measurement of breath ethanol is
not as accurate as measurement of blood eth-
anol and often underestimates the degree of
toxicity.
328
However, in a stuporous or coma-
tose patient with a breath ethanol level of less
than 50 mg/dL, alcohol intoxication is probably
not the culprit and other causes need to be
searched for.
The patient in an alcoholic stupor (blood
level 250 to 300 mg/dL, although highly tol-
erant alcoholics may be awake at these levels)
usually has a flushed face, a rapid pulse, a low
blood pressure, and mild hypothermia, all re-
sulting from the vasodilatory effects of alcohol.
As the coma deepens (blood levels of 300
to 400 mg/dL), such patients become pale and
quiet, and the pupils may dilate and become
sluggishly reactive. With deeper depression
respiration fails. The depth of alcoholic stupor
or coma may be deceptive when judged clini-
cally. Repetitive stimulation during medical
examinations often arouses such patients to the
point where they awaken and require little fur-
ther stimulation to remain awake, only to lapse
into a deep coma with respiratory failure when
left alone in bed. Alcohol is frequently taken
in conjunction with psychotropic or sedative
drugs in suicide attempts. Because ethanol is
also a GABA
A
agonist, it synergizes with the
other depressant drugs. Under such circum-
stances of double ingestion, blood levels are
no longer reliable in predicting the course, and
sudden episodes of respiratory failure or car-
diac arrhythmias are more frequent than in pa-
tients who have taken only a barbiturate.
HEROIN-OPIATE OVERDOSAGE
These drugs can be taken either by injection
or sniffing. Overdosage with narcotics may oc-
cur from suicide attempts or, more commonly,
when an addict or neophyte misjudges the
amount or the quality of the heroin he or she
is injecting or sniffing. Characteristic signs of
opioid coma include pinpoint pupils that gen-
erally contract to a bright light and dilate rap-
idly if a narcotic antagonist is given. Respira-
tory slowing, irregularity, and cessation are
prominent features and result either from di-
rect narcotic depression of the brainstem or
from pulmonary edema, which is a frequent
complication of heroin overdosage,
329
although
the pathogenesis is not understood. Opiates
can cause hypothermia, but by the time such
patients reach the hospital, they frequently
have pneumonitis due to aspiration, so that
body temperatures may be normal or elevated.
Some opioids such as propoxyphene and me-
peridine can cause seizures. Intravenous nal-
oxone at an initial dose of 0.2 to 0.4 mg usually
reverses the effects of opioids. In patients who
are physically dependent, the drug may also
cause acute withdrawal. Repeated boluses at
intervals of 1 to 2 hours may be needed, as
naloxone is a short-acting agent and the pa-
tient may have taken a long-acting opioid.
327
SEDATIVE DRUGS
The neurologic examination itself cannot cat-
egorically separate drug poisoning from other
causes of metabolic brain disease. The most
common diagnostic error is to mistake deep
coma from sedative poisoning for the coma
of brainstem infarction. The initial distinction
between these two conditions may be difficult,
but small, reactive pupils, absence of caloric
responses, failure to respond to noxious stim-
uli, absence of stretch reflexes, and muscular
flaccidity suggest a profound metabolic disor-
der. Persistent extensor responses, hyperactive
stretch reflexes, spasticity, dysconjugate eye
movements to caloric tests, and unreactive
pupils more likely occur with brainstem de-
struction. If both the pupillary light reflexes
and ciliospinal responses are present, deep
coma is metabolic in origin. However, even if
both the pupillary reactions and the ciliospinal
reflexes are lost, deep coma can still be due to
severe sedative intoxication. Thus, demonstra-
tion of brain death requires eliminating the
possibility of a sedative overdose (see Chap-
ter 7).
Patient 5–18
A 48-year-old woman ingested 50 g of chloral
hydrate, 1.5 g of chlordiazepoxide (150 tablets of
Librium), and 2.4 g of flurazepam (80 capsules of
Dalmane) in a suicide attempt. Shortly afterward,
her family found her in a lethargic condition and
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
243
by the time they brought her to the emergency
department she was deeply comatose, hypoten-
sive, and apneic. Examination following endotra-
cheal intubation and the initiation of artificial
ventilation showed a blood pressure of 60/40 mm
Hg, pupils that were 2 mm in diameter and light
fixed, absent corneal and oculovestibular re-
sponses, and total muscle flaccidity accompanied
by areflexia. Arterial and Schwann-Ganz catheters
were placed to assist in physiologic monitoring in
view of the overwhelmingly large depressant drug
dose. There was already evidence of aspiration
pneumonia by the time she reached the hospital. A
broad-spectrum antibiotic was given and a dopa-
mine infusion was started, which initially suc-
ceeded in raising the blood pressure to 80/60 mm
Hg. By 12 hours following admission, progres-
sively increasing amounts of dopamine to a level
of 40 pg/kg/minute were unable to keep the blood
pressure above 60/40 mm Hg and urine flow
ceased. Treatment with
L
-norepinephrine was ini-
tiated at an intravenous dose that reached 12 pg/
minute. This induced a prompt rise in blood
pressure to 80/40 mm Hg accompanied by a brisk
urine flow. Toxicologic analysis of an admission
blood sample showed the qualitative presence of
chloral hydrate (quantitative assay was not avail-
able). Chlordiazepoxide level was 59.4 mg/mL and
flurazepam was 6.6 mg/mL.
Early management was complicated by the ef-
fects of radiographically demonstrated aspiration
pneumonia and by pulmonary edema, as well as
by atrial, junctional, and ventricular premature
cardiac contractions. Hypotension hovering be-
tween 80/60 and 60/40 mm Hg was a serious
problem for the first 48 hours, and declines in
blood pressure were repeatedly accompanied by a
marginal urinary flow. The woman remained un-
responsive, but by day 4 it was possible to main-
tain mean blood pressures above 80/60 mm Hg
using dopamine; the
L
-norepinephrine was dis-
continued. Isosthenuria and polyuria developed,
reflecting the probable complication of renal tu-
bular necrosis, but meticulous attention to elec-
trolyte balance, pulmonary toilet, and the avoid-
ance of overhydration managed to prevent the
various complications from worsening. Ice water
caloric stimulation first elicited a reaction of ocu-
lar movement on day 4 and the pupillary light
reflexes reappeared on the same day. On day
8 spontaneous breathing began and one could
detect stretch reflexes in the extremities. She first
responded to noxious stimuli by opening her eyes
and withdrawing her limbs on day 10 and she
mumbled words 1 day later. Not until day 13 did
she fully awaken to follow commands and answer
questions. The quick phase of nystagmus to caloric
stimulation did not return until day 15. She sub-
sequently made a complete physical and intellec-
tual recovery and received psychiatric treatment.
Comment: This woman’s course emphasizes
the maxim that if patients with depressant drug
poisoning survive to reach the hospital, they are
potentially salvageable no matter what the blood
levels of the ingested agent. The toxicologic ana-
lyses in this instance showed an amount of drug in
the body that is generally regarded as a fatal dose.
Whether hemodialysis would have shortened this
patient’s course can be questioned, since none
of the ingested agents was dialyzable. Generally
speaking, among younger patients seen with drug
intoxication, only those who have ingested large
amounts of barbiturates have periods of un-
consciousness that approach the length of this
woman’s coma. However, patients put into pen-
tobarbital coma therapeutically to treat status
epilepticus may have a very similar course, and
prolonged drug-induced coma does not appear to
injure the brain. Her case illustrates that any sed-
ative taken in sufficiently large amounts is capable
of producing many days of coma that require
meticulous systemic care to accomplish survival.
Her outcome further emphasizes that even very
long periods of unresponsive coma need not pro-
duce any measure of brain injury so long as blood
gases and arterial perfusion pressures are main-
tained at levels close to the physiologic norm.
In diagnosing coma caused by depressant
drug poisoning, one must not only identify the
cause, but also judge the depth of coma, for the
latter influences the choice of treatment. Sev-
eral years ago, Reed and colleagues
330
sug-
gested a grading scheme for patients with de-
pressant drug poisoning, as outlined in Table
5–15. The practical aspect of the classification
is that only patients with grade 3 or 4 depres-
sion are at risk of losing their lives. By the same
token, comparisons of the potential value of
one treatment over another can only be judged
by comparing them on patients in grade 3 or 4
coma, where essentially all deaths occur.
Benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepine
agonists of the same receptors (e.g., drugs like
zolpidem and eszopiclone) have replaced bar-
biturates as hypnotic agents. They cause much
244
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
less respiratory depression, but at very high
dosages may still cause respiratory arrest, par-
ticularly if the patient has underlying chronic
pulmonary disease. An overdose can be re-
versed by the specific antagonist flumazenil.
331
Flumazenil is useful in assessing multiagent
poisoning because it reverses the side effects
of the benzodiazepine; however, in some cir-
cumstances it may cause acute withdrawal
seizures.
332
Flumazenil does not affect coma
due to alcohol, barbiturates, tricyclic antide-
pressants, or opioids.
INTOXICATION WITH
ENDOGENOUSLY PRODUCED
‘‘BENZODIAZEPINES’’
Over the years there have been scattered case
reports of patients with recurrent episodes of
stupor resembling drug overdose,
333
but no
drug ingestion could be identified. Lugaresi
and colleagues suggested the possibility that
such attacks might be due to elevated levels
of an endogenous benzodiazepine-like agent
called ‘‘endozepine.’’
334,335
Patients clinically
resemble those who have taken benzodiaze-
pines in overdose and, in fact, some have called
into question whether the disorder is really
due to surreptitious ingestion of benzodiaze-
pines
336
; at least one of Lugaresi’s cases turned
out to be due to surreptitious lorazepam in-
gestion.
337
Stupor in such patients may last
hours or days; it has an unpredictable onset
and frequency. Patients are entirely normal
between attacks. Like patients with benzodi-
azepine intoxication, these patients respond to
flumazenil, which both wakes the patient and
normalizes the EEG. Measures of endogenous
benzodiazepine-like levels are increased dur-
ing the stupor. Patients can be treated with
oral flumazenil to reduce the frequency of at-
tacks. The first reports of the disorder may have
been by Haimovic and Beresford in 1992.
333
Intoxication With Other
Common Medications
Acetaminophen overdose is the most common
poisoning reported to poison information cen-
ters. The drug’s metabolite (NAPQI)
338
can
cause acute liver necrosis, and doses above 5 g
can lead to liver failure and hepatic coma. Al-
kalosis and grossly elevated liver function stud-
ies are a clue to its presence; prompt treatment
with N-acetylcysteine often prevents fatality.
339
ANTIDEPRESSANTS
These drugs include the tricyclic agents such
as amitriptyline, selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors such as paroxetine and fluoxetine,
and monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. All
can produce delirium, and the tricyclic anti-
depressants can cause stupor or coma. The ma-
jor toxicity of the tricyclic antidepressants is
on the cardiovascular system, causing cardiac
arrhythmias and hypotension. The CNS is af-
fected by the change in blood pressure as well
as the anticholinergic effects of the drugs that
can lead to anhydrosis, fever, and multifocal
monoclonus.
327
Selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors and MAO inhibitors taken alone
generally are not neurotoxic. When taken to-
gether, however, they may result in the se-
rotonin syndrome characterized by delirium,
myoclonus, hyperreflexia, diaphoresis, flush-
ing, fever, nausea, and diarrhea. Disseminated
intravascular coagulation may be a side effect
and add to the CNS difficulties. Methysergide
and cyproheptadine have been reported to be
effective in reversing this disorder.
327
Lithium intoxication is characterized by
tremor, ataxia and nystagmus, choreoathetosis,
photophobia, and lethargy. It may also induce
nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, resulting in
volume depletion and hyperosmolarity. Delir-
ium, seizures, coma, and cardiovascular instabil-
ity may occur with severe intoxication.
339
Cer-
ebellar toxicity occurs at levels higher than 3.5
mEq/L and may be nonreversible.
340
With a
Table 5–15 Severity of Depressant
Drug Coma*
Grade: 0 Asleep but arousable
1 Unarousable to talk but withdraws
appropriately
2 Comatose; most reflexes intact;
no cardiorespiratory depression
3 Comatose; no tendon reflexes;
no cardiorespiratory depression
4 Respiratory failure, hypotension,
pulmonary edema or arrhythmia present.
Comatose for more than 36 hours
*Adapted from Reed et al.
330
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
245
decreased serum anion gap, hemodialysis may
be required for severe intoxication.
339
Many other drugs are proconvulsive and may
produce seizures, as indicated in Table 5–17.
Ethanol Intoxication
One would hardly think that it takes a medi-
cal education to diagnose a drunk, but the ap-
praisal of ethanol intoxication sometimes turns
out to be deceptively difficult. In Belfast, for
example, where events should provide no lack
of experience, the diagnosis of alcohol or non-
alcohol ingestion in patients with head injury
was incorrectly made a full 12% of the time. Of
even greater potential consequence, six of 42
subjects with blood levels over 100 mg/dL
were clinically unrecognized as being in-
toxicated.
341
Alcohol exerts its main sedative effect by
potentiating the GABA
A
receptor. However, it
also affects other neurotransmitters, including
causing increases in dopaminergic transmis-
sion, which is a critical component of the re-
ward system to the brain. It also promotes the
release of noradrenaline, blocks the NMDA
glutamate receptor, and stimulates the 5HT
3
receptor.
342
Moderately large doses of ethanol represent
a frequent cause of stupor, most examples of
which recover spontaneously without medical
attention. Large doses produce a coma that at
greater than 400 mg/dL can be fatal, primarily
due to respiratory depression. A major prob-
lem with alcohol ingestion is that the ensuing
uninhibited behavior leads to the impulsive
ingestion of other sedative, hypnotic, or anti-
depressant drugs or to careless, headstrong,
and uncoordinated activity (e.g., fighting, driv-
ing while intoxicated) that invites head trauma.
As a result, the major diagnostic problem in
altered states of consciousness associated with
acute alcoholic intoxication lies in separating
the potentially benign and spontaneously re-
versible signs of alcoholic depression from ev-
idence of more serious injury from other drugs
or head trauma.
As noted above, in pure alcohol intoxicat-
ion, blood levels correlate fairly well with clin-
ical signs of intoxication. Dose levels correlate
less well because the rate of absorption from
the stomach and intestine depends heavily on
the presence or absence of other stomach con-
tents. Chronic ingestion induces moderate tol-
erance, but in general, the associations in Table
5–16 represent dependable guidelines. When
estimating dosage, the physician should recall
that in the United States the alcoholic content
of distilled spirits equals 50% of the stated proof
on the label.
Clinical signs of acute drunkenness can
closely resemble those caused by several other
metabolic encephalopathies, especially includ-
ing other depressant drug intoxication, diabetic
ketoacidosis, and hypoglycemia. Innate psy-
chologic traits influence the behavior of many
drunks, adding to the complexities of diagnosis.
As mentioned above, the odor of the breath de-
pends on impurities and is an unreliable sign.
Patients with alcohol intoxication are ataxic,
clumsy, and dysarthric. They are easily con-
fused, are often uninhibited and boisterous
(or, more severely, stuporous), and commonly
vomit. The conjunctivae are often hyperemic
and with severe poisoning the pupils react slug-
gishly to light. Severe intoxication or stupor
produces a remarkable degree of analgesia
(‘‘feeling no pain’’) to noxious stimuli such that
prior to the discovery of modern anesthetics,
alcohol was often used for this purpose.
Table 5–16 Clinical Effects and
Blood Levels in Acute Alcoholism
Symptoms
Blood Level
(mg/dL)
Euphoria, giddiness, verbosity
25–100
Long reaction time, impaired
mental status examination
Mild incoordination, nystagmus
Hypalgesia to noxious stimuli
Boisterousness, withdrawal,
easily confused
100–200
Conjunctival hyperemia
Ataxia, nystagmus, dysarthria
Pronounced hypalgesia
Nausea, vomiting, drowsiness
200–300
Diplopia, wide sluggish pupils
Marked ataxia and clumsiness
Hypothermia, cold sweat,
amnesic stupor
>
300
Severe dysarthria or anarthria
Anesthesia
Stertor, hypoventilation
Coma
246
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Table 5–17 Proconvulsant Agents: Classification by Source and Use
Pharmaceuticals
Nonpharmaceuticals
Class
Example(s)
Class
Example(s)
Analgesics
Meperidine/normeperidine,
propoxyphene, pentazocine,
salicylate, tramadol
Alcohols
Methanol, ethanol (withdrawal)
Anesthetics
Local anesthetics (lidocaine, benzocaine)
Antiseptics/preservatives
Ethylene oxide, phenol
Anticonvulsants
Carbamazepine
Biologic toxins
Antidepressants
Tricyclics
(amitriptyline/nortriptyline),
amoxapine, bupropion, selective
serotonine reuptake inhibitors
(citalopram), venlafaxine
Marine animals
Domoic acid (shellfish [blue mussels])
Mushrooms
Monomethylhydrazine (Gyromitra spp.)
Plants
Conine (poison hemlock), viral A
(water hemlock) camphor
Antihistamines
Diphenhydramine, doxylamine,
tripelennamine
Gases (naturally and/or
anthropogenically occurring)
Carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen cyanide
Antimicrobials
Metals/organometallics
Alkyl mercurials (dimethylmercury),
arsenic, lead, thallium, tetraethyl
lead, organotins (trimethyltin)
Antineoplastics
Alkylating agents (chlorambucil,
busulfan)
Metal hydrides
Pentaborane, phosphine
Antipsychotics
Clozapine, loxapine
Pesticides
Asthma medications
Fungicides/herbicides
Dinitrophenol, diquat, glufosinate
Cardiovascular drugs
Propranolol, quinidine
Insecticides
Organochlorines (lindane, DDT),
organophosphates (parathion),
pyrethroids (type II), sulfuryl
fluoride, alkyl halides (methyl
bromide)
Cholinergics
Pilocarpine, bethanechol
Molluscadides
Metaldehyde
Muscle relaxants
Baclofen, orphenadrine
Rodenticides
Strychnine, zinc or aluminum
Nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory
drugs
Mefenamic acid, phenylbutazone
phosphide
Psychostimulants/anorectics
Amphetamine, caffeine, cocaine,
methamphetamine, methylenedioxymetham-
phetamine (MDMA)
Vitamins/supplements
Vitamin A, iron salts (ferrous sulfate)
A secure diagnosis of alcoholic intoxication
and its severity requires blood level determi-
nations. When these are unavailable, deter-
mining serum osmolality helps.
324
Alcohol
adds osmols to blood in a degree proportional
to its blood level. A blood level over 150 mg/dL
produces a serum osmolality of less than 320
mOsm/kg, and patients with blood alcohol
levels of 200 mg/dL had a serum osmolality of
greater than 340 mOsm/kg. Because alcohol
is uniformly distributed in body water, the
hyperosmolality does not lead to fluid shifts
out of the brain, and thus, the hyperosmolality
produced by alcohol is not in itself a cause of
symptoms.
Intoxication With Drugs of Abuse
Party or club drugs include GHB, ketamine,
Rohypnol (flunitrazepam), methamphetamine,
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and 3,4-
methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA;
Ecstasy).
322,343
Other drugs include cocaine,
opioids (see above), and phencyclidine. These
drugs may be taken alone or in combination
and can cause critical illness.
327
Cocaine may be taken nasally, orally, or in-
travenously. The drug inhibits neuronal up-
take of catecholamines and causes CNS stim-
ulation. Patients are often euphoric and may be
anxious, agitated, and delirious, and sometimes
have seizures. Agitation can be controlled with
benzodiazepines. Some patients are febrile and
require cooling. There is no specific antidote.
Some patients develop a CNS vasculitis that
can result in cerebral infarction, myocardial
infarction, and sometimes cerebral hemorr-
hage. This is currently one of the most com-
mon causes of stroke in young adults without
the usual risk factors for atherosclerotic dis-
ease.
GHB causes a state of deep sleep with high-
voltage delta EEG. It has been released in the
United States to treat narcolepsy, in which
fragmented sleep at night contributes to day-
time symptoms such as cataplexy. Because it
induces such deep unresponsiveness, it has
achieved a reputation as a date rape drug
344
and, at high doses, can cause coma and respi-
ratory insufficiency. It has a rather short half-
life, so that recovery usually occurs within
several hours. Some uncontrolled studies have
suggested physostigmine as an antidote, but
the evidence for this is poor and experimental
studies have failed to find an effect.
345,346
Phencyclidine, or ‘‘angel dust,’’ is a gluta-
mate NMDA receptor antagonist.
347
It results
in bizarre behavior and agitation and, at higher
doses, can produce delirium and coma. Both
vertical and horizontal nystagmus are com-
mon. Seizures and dystonic reactions are less
common. Many patients have pinpoint pupils
when they are awake and agitated, and this can
be a clue to the diagnosis. Patients may de-
velop hypertensive encephalopathy; intracra-
nial and subarachnoid hemorrhages have been
reported. Ketamine, another NMDA antago-
nist, has been used as an anesthetic agent and
is still used in the veterinary setting.
348
As a club
drug it can either be ingested or smoked. It
causes delirium, often with hallucinations. Side
effects may include hypothermia and respira-
tory depression.
349
With either drug, a benzodi-
azepine may help control violent behavior.
327
MDMA has its major effect on the serotonin
system. It is an indirect serotonin agonist that
inhibits tryptophan hydroxylase and thus de-
creases serotonin production. It also induces
the release of serotonin and blocks serotonin
reuptake. The drug also increases the release
of dopamine and norepinephrine from presyn-
aptic neurons and prevents their metabolism
by inhibiting monamine oxydase. The usual ad-
verse effects include anxiety, ataxia, and diffi-
culty concentrating; seizures can occur and pu-
pillary dilation is common. Hyperthermia may
lead to death.
349
Agitation and seizures can be
treated with benzodiazepines.
Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) is a benzodiaze-
pine and like other drugs in this class poten-
tiates GABA
A
receptors. Its effects are similar
to other drugs in this class, such as benzodi-
azepines or alcohol intoxication, except that it
is more likely to produce respiratory depres-
sion, so that overdose can be life threatening.
Flumazenil, a benzodiazepine antagonist, can
reverse the toxicity.
349
Intoxication With Drugs Causing
Metabolic Acidosis
The metabolism and mechanisms of neurologic
changes in acid-base disorders are discussed
on pages 188–192. This section considers
specific exogenous poisons causing metabolic
acidosis.
325
These include methyl alcohol,
248
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
ethylene glycol, and paraldehyde. Salicylate
poisoning also produces a metabolic acidosis
in the tissues, but in adults this aspect of the
disorder often is overshadowed in the blood by
evidence of respiratory alkalosis.
The metabolic acidosis and neurotoxicity of
methyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, and paralde-
hyde all result from their metabolic breakdown
products rather than the original agent. Poi-
soning from all three drugs is most common in
chronic alcoholics who ingest the agents either
by mistake or in ignorance of their risks as a
substitute for ethanol. All three agents initially
cause symptoms of alcohol intoxication, pro-
gressing to confusion and stupor, by which point
symptoms and signs of severe acidosis and sys-
temic organ complications usually emerge as
well.
Methanol is degraded by alcohol dehydro-
genase into formic acid.
327
The presence of eth-
anol in the system slows its metabolic break-
down, thereby influencing the clinical course.
The earliest and most frequent neurologic dam-
age of methyl alcohol poisoning affects retinal
ganglion cells. The symptoms of methanol poi-
soning can evolve over several days or appear
abruptly. Stupor, coma, or seizures occur only
in severely poisoned patients. Most subjects
at first give the appearance of advanced ineb-
riation and develop visual loss (‘‘blind drunk’’).
Hyperpnea (respiratory compensation for meta-
bolic acidosis) is the rule. Effective early inter-
vention depends on recognizing the presence of
an organic acidosis and treating it vigorously by
using an inhibitor of alcohol dehydrogenase,
such as fomepizole.
24
Because ethanol compe-
tes with methanol for alcohol dehydrogenase
and thus slows its metabolism, it may be used to
minimize the damage from methanol if a spe-
cific inhibitor is not readily available. If these
drugs fail, hemodialysis may be indicated.
327
The following patient illustrates the point.
Patient 5–19
A 39-year-old man had been intermittently drink-
ing denatured alcohol for 10 days. He was ad-
mitted complaining that for several hours his vi-
sion was blurred and he was short of breath. He
was alert, oriented, and coherent, but restless. His
blood pressure was 130/100 mm Hg, his pulse was
130 per minute, and his respirations were 40 per
minute, regular and deep. The only other abnor-
mal physical findings were 20/40 vision, engorged
left retinal veins with pink optic disks, and slug-
gishly reactive pupils, 5 mm in diameter. His se-
rum bicarbonate level was 5 mEq/L, and his arte-
rial pH was 7.16. An intravenous infusion was
begun immediately; 540 mEq of sodium bicar-
bonate was infused during the next 4 hours. By
that time his arterial pH had risen to 7.47 and his
serum bicarbonate to 13.9 mEq/L. He was still
hyperventilating but less restless. The infusion was
continued at a slower rate for 20 hours to a total of
740 mEq of bicarbonate. He recovered com-
pletely.
Comment: Denatured alcohol, usually sold as a
solvent, contains about 83% ethanol and 16%
methanol. Hence, it is not unusual for alcoholics
to ingest denatured alcohol, despite the required
warnings on the label, and this source should be
sought in the emergency department when a pa-
tient who appears intoxicated with ethanol com-
plains of visual symptoms and is hyperventilating.
It is likely that the presence of ethanol sufficiently
slowed the metabolism of methanol in this patient
so that he was able to recover. This patient had
profound acidosis, as was reflected by the require-
ment of 540 mEq of parenteral sodium bicarbonate
to raise his serum bicarbonate from 5 to 13 mEq/L.
However, it is not clear that bicarbonate therapy
improves outcome.
325
Some patients suffer from
hypercalcemia and hypoglycemia, and these need
to be corrected. Patients may be chronically malno-
urished and treatment with vitamins, particularly
thiamine but also folate and pyridoxine, should be
administered. These same general guidelines ap-
ply to ingestion of other alcohols as indicated
below. The acidosis of methyl alcohol poisoning
can be lethal with alarming rapidity. One of our
patients walked into the hospital complaining of
blurred vision. He admitted drinking ‘‘a lot’’ of
methyl alcohol and was hyperventilating. During
the 10 minutes that it took to transfer him to a treat-
ment unit he lost consciousness. By the time an
intravenous infusion could be started, his breath-
ing and heart had stopped and resuscitation was
unsuccessful. No bicarbonate could be detected in
a serum sample drawn simultaneously with death.
Paraldehyde is no longer available in the
United States, as it has been replaced by other
drugs for treating status epilepticus, although
it may still be available in other countries.
350
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
249
Paraldehyde is metabolized to acetic acid,
which may cause acidosis, but the degree of
acidosis in these patients exceeds the amount
of detectable acetic acid in the serum, implying
the presence of other acid products as well.
Distinctive clinical features, in addition to the
manifestations of metabolic acidosis, include
the odor of paraldehyde on the breath, abdomi-
nal pain, a marked leucocytosis, and obtunded,
lethargic behavior. All patients reported to date
have recovered.
Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) is metabolized
by alcohol dehydrogenase, the end products
being formic, glyoxylic, and oxalic acids.
327
A
relatively severe metabolic acidosis occurs dur-
ing the early hours of toxicity. The initial clin-
ical signs are similar to alcohol intoxication but
without ethanol’s characteristic odor. Patients
with severe poisoning go on to disorientation,
stupor, coma, convulsions, and death. Neuro-
ophthalmologic abnormalities including papil-
ledema, nystagmus, and ocular bobbing can be
prominent. Metabolic abnormalities, if uncor-
rected, can lead to cardiopulmonary failure. A
late complication of ethylene glycol poisoning
is renal damage caused by oxalate crystalluria.
Diagnosis should be suspected by a history of
ingestion of antifreeze in an alcoholic or after a
suicide attempt, the identification of an anion
gap metabolic acidosis, and the detection of
characteristic oxalic acid crystals in the urine.
The treatment is the same as that of methanol
poisoning (see above).
339
Propylene glycol is a widely available organic
solvent used in a variety of oral and inject-
able pharmaceutical agents, food preparations,
and cosmetic materials. Because of its typi-
cally pharmacologically inert nature, propyl-
ene glycol overdose is not considered in the
differential diagnosis of acute large anion gap
acidosis and is not included in standard toxi-
cologic studies (or may be used as an internal
standard masking overdose). However, propyl-
ene glycol overdose may produce profound CNS
compromise including stupor and coma, car-
diovascular collapse, and marked hematologic
changes including leukocytosis, thrombocytosis,
microcytic anemia, and bone marrow abnormali-
ties. Animal studies indicate reduction in arousal
following repeated intoxication, suggesting that
long-term CNS depression results from chronic
propylene glycol exposure.
351
Commercial
preparations of propylene glycol contain a ra-
cemic mixture and are metabolized in vivo to
both d- an l-lactic acid isomers. Cats that de-
veloped CNS depression were noted to accu-
mulate d-lactate on a dose-dependent basis that
was positively correlated with an elevated anion
gap. Preferential accumulation in the brain is
thought to occur because of the low level of ca-
tabolizing enzyme in this site. d-lactic acidosis is
known to produce a toxic encephalopathy in
humans, usually in the setting of short bowel
syndrome.
352
Lactic acidosis has emerged increasingly
in recent years as a metabolic disorder some-
times associated with neurologic symptoms
and a poor prognosis.
353
Mild and asymptom-
atic elevations of serum lactate up to 6 mEq/L
accompany a number of conditions including
alkalosis, carbohydrate infusions, anxiety, and
other conditions that elevate blood epinephri-
nemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, and alcohol into-
xication. More intense, but still systemically
benign, lactic acidosis with arterial blood levels
of 20 mEq/L or more and blood pH levels
below 7.00 can follow vigorous muscular exer-
cise. We have observed similar degrees of ac-
idosis and acidemia following major motor con-
vulsions, but in neither exercise nor epilepsy
was there evidence that the lactacidemia af-
fected brain function. Lactic acid crosses the
blood-brain barrier via a carrier mechanism
that saturates at about three to four times the
normal plasma concentration of 1 mEq/L. Thus,
although high concentrations of lactate in the
brain are believed to be neurotoxic, possibly by
promoting excitotoxicity,
354
these probably only
occur when produced by local brain ischemia or
in conditions in which systemic hypoxia, circu-
latory failure, or drug poisoning also affect di-
rectly the oxidative metabolism of the CNS.
In adults, salicylate intoxication appears in
two principal forms. Relatively younger persons
sometimes take aspirin or similar agents in sui-
cide attempts. Although many become severely
ill and a few die with terminal coma or convul-
sions, most of these younger patients lack promi-
nent neurologic complaints except for tinnitus
and dyspnea. Older persons, by contrast, often
ingest salicylates in excessive amounts more
or less accidentally in proprietary analgesics; in
these patients, neurologic symptoms can dom-
inate the early illness, producing an encephalop-
athy that initially obscures the etiologic diag-
nosis. Salicylates act as a ‘‘metabolic uncoupler’’
in oxidative phosphorylation and stimulate net
organic acid production. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic
250
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
acid) also contains 1.7 mEq of acid per 300-mg
tablet. In experimental animals, death from sa-
licylate poisoning comes from convulsions and
relates directly to the concentration of the drug
in the brain; clinical evidence suggests that sim-
ilar principles apply in humans.
Salicylates in adults stimulate respiration neu-
rogenically to a degree that nearly always pro-
duces a respiratory alkalosis in the blood unless
simultaneous ingestion of a sedative drug sup-
presses the respiratory response.
327
The meta-
bolic acidosis of the tissues is reflected usually
by a disproportionately lowered serum bicar-
bonate and always by an acid urine. Depending
on age, associated illness, and the rapidity of
accumulation, the first symptoms of salicylate
intoxication usually appear at a blood level of
about 40 to 50 mg/dL. Blood levels over 60 mg/
dL usually produce symptoms of severe toxicity.
Initial complaints are of tinnitus and, less often,
deafness. As many as one-half of older persons
with severe salicylate intoxication develop con-
fusion, agitation, slurred speech, hallucinations,
convulsions, stupor, or coma. Hyperpnea, intact
pupillary responses, intact oculocephalic res-
ponses, diffuse paratonia, and, in many instan-
ces, extensor plantar responses are present. In a
patient with metabolic encephalopathy, a respi-
ratory alkalosis and mildly abnormal anion gap
in the blood combined with aciduria are almost
always diagnostic of salicylism and can be
quickly confirmed by determination of salicy-
late blood levels. Salicylate intoxication may be
complicated by gastrointestinal bleeding, pul-
monary edema, and multiorgan failure. Hemo-
dialysis may be necessary to treat the disorder.
The following patient illustrates the problem.
Patient 5–20
A 74-year-old woman with osteoarthritis, self-
treated with aspirin, developed peptic ulcer dis-
ease. She was admitted to the hospital, where she
was noted to be lethargic and confused after she
fell out of bed. With a dysarthric, deepened voice,
she complained of a recent loss of hearing. The
examination showed fluctuating lethargy, aster-
ixis, and bilateral extensor plantar responses, but
little else. A CT scan was unremarkable and the
changes were at first ascribed to the nonfocal ef-
fects of trauma. The next day, however, she was
barely arousable, severely dysarthric, and disori-
ented when she did respond. The pupils were 2
mm and equal, the oculocephalic responses full
and conjugate, and prominent bilateral asterixis
involved the upper extremities. Both plantar re-
sponses were extensor and the respiratory rate was
32 per minute. Arterial blood gases were pH 7.48,
PCO
2
24 mm Hg, PO
2
81 mm Hg, and HCO
3
19
mEq/L. Serum sodium was 134, potassium 3.5,
and chloride 96 mEq/L, giving an anion gap of
approximately 19. Serum salicylate level was 54
mg/dL. She was treated cautiously with alkaline
diuresis and became alert without abnormal neu-
rologic symptoms or signs within 48 hours. Her
aspirin was found in the bedside table.
Many poisons have specific antidotes, and
some of the most common are indicated in
Table 5–18.
ABNORMALITIES OF IONIC
OR ACID-BASE ENVIRONMENT
OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The term osmolality refers to the number of
solute particles dissolved in a solvent. Osmolal-
ity is usually expressed as milliosmoles per liter
Table 5–18 Selected Drugs and
Poisons With Specific Antidotes
Drug/Poison
Antidotes
Acetaminophen
N-acetylcysteine
Anticholinergics
Physostigmine
Anticholinesterases
Atropine
Benzodiazepines
Flumazenil
Carbon monoxide
Oxygen
Cyanide
Amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite,
sodium thiosulfate,
hydroxocobalamin
Ethylene glycol
Ethanol/fomepizole,
thiamine, and pyridoxine
Hypoglycemic agents Dextrose, glucagon,
octreotide
Methanol
Ethanol or fomepizole,
folic acid
Methemoglobinemia Methylene blue
Opioids
Naloxone
Organophosphate
Atropine, pralidoxamine
Modified from Fabbri et al.,
323
with permission.
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
251
|