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178
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Chapter
5
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic
Brain Diseases Causing Delirium,
Stupor, or Coma
CLINICAL SIGNS OF METABOLIC
ENCEPHALOPATHY
CONSCIOUSNESS: CLINICAL ASPECTS
Tests of Mental Status
Pathogenesis of the Mental Changes
RESPIRATION
Neurologic Respiratory Changes
Accompanying Metabolic Encephalopathy
Acid-Base Changes Accompanying
Hyperventilation During
Metabolic Encephalopathy
Acid-Base Changes Accompanying
Hypoventilation During
Metabolic Encephalopathy
PUPILS
OCULAR MOTILITY
MOTOR ACTIVITY
‘‘Nonspecific’’ Motor Abnormalities
Motor Abnormalities Characteristic
of Metabolic Coma
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Distinction Between Metabolic
and Psychogenic Unresponsiveness
Distinction Between Coma of Metabolic
and Structural Origin
ASPECTS OF CEREBRAL METABOLISM
PERTINENT TO COMA
CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW
GLUCOSE METABOLISM
Hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
ANESTHESIA
MECHANISMS OF IRREVERSIBLE
ANOXIC ANOXIC-ISCHEMIC
BRAIN DAMAGE
Global Ischemia
Focal Ischemia
Hypoxia
EVALUATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
CHANGES IN METABOLIC COMA
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid
Serotonin
Histamine
Glutamate
Norepinephrine
SPECIFIC CAUSES
OF METABOLIC COMA
ISCHEMIA AND HYPOXIA
Acute, Diffuse (or Global) Hypoxia
or Ischemia
Intermittent or Sustained Hypoxia
Sequelae of Hypoxia
179
DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE
OR COFACTOR AVAILABILITY
Hypoglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Cofactor Deficiency
DISEASES OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OTHER
THAN BRAIN
Liver Disease
Renal Disease
Pulmonary Disease
Pancreatic Encephalopathy
Diabetes Mellitus
Adrenal Disorders
Thyroid Disorders
Pituitary Disorders
Cancer
EXOGENOUS INTOXICATIONS
Sedative and Psychotropic Drugs
Intoxication With Other Common
Medications
Ethanol Intoxication
Intoxication With Drugs of Abuse
Intoxication With Drugs Causing
Metabolic Acidosis
ABNORMALITIES OF IONIC
OR ACID-BASE ENVIRONMENT
OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Hypo-osmolar States
Hyperosmolar States
Calcium
Other Electrolytes
Disorders of Systemic Acid-Base Balance
DISORDERS OF THERMOREGULATION
Hypothermia
Hyperthermia
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS
OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM: BACTERIAL
Acute Bacterial Leptomeningitis
Chronic Bacterial Meningitis
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS
OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM: VIRAL
Overview of Viral Encephalitis
Acute Viral Encephalitis
Acute Toxic Encephalopathy During Viral
Encephalitis
Parainfectious Encephalitis
(Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis)
Cerebral Biopsy for Diagnosis of
Encephalitis
CEREBRAL VASCULITIS AND OTHER
VASCULOPATHIES
Granulomatous Central Nervous System
Angiitis
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Subacute Diencephalic
Angioencephalopathy
Varicella-Zoster Vasculitis
Behc¸et’s Syndrome
Cerebral Autosomal Dominant
Arteriopathy With Subcortical Infarcts
and Leukoencephalopathy
MISCELLANEOUS NEURONAL
AND GLIAL DISORDERS
Prion Diseases
Adrenoleukodystrophy (Schilder’s
Disease)
Marchiafava-Bignami Disease
Gliomatosis Cerebri
Progressive Multifocal
Leukoencephalopathy
Epilepsy
Mixed Metabolic Encephalopathy
ACUTE DELIRIOUS STATES
Drug Withdrawal Delirium
(Delirium Tremens)
Postoperative Delirium
Intensive Care Unit Delirium
Drug-Induced Delirium
This chapter describes the biochemical and phy-
siologic mechanisms (where known) by which
multifocal and diffuse disorders interfere with
the metabolism of the brain to produce delirium,
stupor, or coma. It also describes the signs and
symptoms that characterize these disorders and
differentiate them from localized intracranial
mass lesions and unifocal destructive lesions.
180
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Not all of the myriad disorders that cause
delirium or coma can be included. Among the
criteria for selection are (1) presentation to an
emergency department with the acute or sub-
acute onset of delirium or coma without a prior
history that immediately explains the cause, (2)
a condition that may be reversible if treated
promptly but is potentially lethal otherwise, (3)
an illness with characteristic clinical or labo-
ratory findings that strongly suggest the diagno-
sis, or (4) a rare and unusual disorder that may
be overlooked by physicians who are rushing
to establish a diagnosis and start treatment.
A physician confronted by a stuporous or
comatose patient must address the question,
which of the major etiologic categories of
dysfunction (i.e., supratentorial, subtentorial,
metabolic, or psychologic) caused the coma?
Chapters 3 and 4 discuss the signs that indi-
cate whether a patient is suffering from a
structural cause (supratentorial or subten-
torial) of coma. This chapter describes some
of the causes of diffuse and metabolic brain
dysfunction. The next chapter describes psy-
chologic dysfunction.
The initial section of this chapter describes
the clinical signs of diffuse, multifocal, or meta-
bolic disease of the brain. Once the physician
has determined that the patient’s signs and
symptoms indicate such an illness, he or she
must determine which of the large number of
specific illnesses is responsible for this particu-
lar patient’s stupor or coma. This question often
requires a rapid answer because many meta-
bolic disorders that cause coma are fully revers-
ible if treated early and appropriately, but lethal
if treatment is delayed or is inappropriate.
Table 5–1 lists some of the diffuse, multifocal,
and metabolic causes of stupor and coma. It at-
tempts to classify these causes in such a way
that the table can be used as a checklist of the
major causes to be considered when the phy-
sician is presented with an unconscious patient
suspected of suffering from an illness in this
category. Heading A concerns itself with dep-
rivation of oxygen, substrates, or metabolic co-
factors. Headings B through E are concerned
with systemic diseases that cause abnormalities
of cerebral metabolism (metabolic encephalop-
athy). Headings F and G are concerned with
primary disorders of nervous system function,
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