(with back pain, sensory level,
and urinary incontinence)
7
8
From Younger et al.,
217
with permission.
156
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
produced by the organisms or cytokines or pros-
taglandins in response to the presence of the or-
ganisms may interfere with neuronal function.
Although many different organisms can cause
encephalitis, including a number of mosquito-
borne viruses with regional variations in preva-
lence (eastern and western equine, St. Louis,
Japanese, and West Nile viruses), by far the
most common and serious cause of sporadic en-
cephalitis is herpes simplex type I.
219
This dis-
order accounts for 10% to 20% of all viral in-
fections of the CNS. Patients characteristically
have fever, headache, and alteration of con-
sciousness that culminate in coma (Table 4–
14). Personality changes, memory impairment,
or seizures focus attention on the medial tem-
poral, frontal, and insular areas, where the in-
fection usually begins and is most severe.
Routine examination of CSF is not very
helpful. There is usually a pleocytosis with a
white count of as many as 100 cells and a pro-
tein concentration averaging 100 mg/dL. Red
cells may or may not be present. As many as
10% of patients may have a normal CSF ex-
amination when initially seen. However, poly-
merase chain reaction (PCR) detection of her-
pes simplex virus in CSF is diagnostic. The
EEG may be helpful if it shows slowing or
epileptiform activity arising from the temporal
lobe. CT and MRI are very helpful, showing
edema and then destruction predominantly in
the temporal and frontal lobes, and often in the
insular cortex (Figure 4–11). The destruction
can initially be unilateral but usually rapidly
becomes bilateral. The differential diagnosis
includes other forms of encephalitis including
bacteria and viruses, and even low-grade as-
trocytomas of the medial temporal lobe, which
may present with seizures and a subtle low
density lesion.
It is very important to begin treatment as
early as possible with an antiviral agent such
as acyclovir at 10 mg/kg every 8 hours for 10
to 14 days.
221
Most patients who are treated
promptly make a full recovery, although an
occasional patient is left with severe memory
loss.
Acute Disseminated
Encephalomyelitis
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)
is an allergic, presumably autoimmune, en-
cephalitis that is seen during or after an in-
fectious illness, but which may also be caused
by vaccination. Spontaneous sporadic cases are
believed to result from a subclinical infectious
illness.
222,223
Patients develop multifocal neu-
rologic symptoms, usually over a period of sev-
eral days, about 1 to 2 weeks after a febrile
illness. Neurologic signs may include a wide va-
riety of sensory and motor complaints, as they
do in patients with multiple sclerosis, but a
Table 4–14 Findings in 113 Patients With Herpes Simplex Encephalitis
No. (%) of
Patients
No. (%) of
Patients
Historic Findings
Clinical Findings
at Presentation
Alteration of consciousness
109/112 (97)
Fever
101/110 (92)
Cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis
107/110 (97)
Personality change
69/81 (85)
Fever
101/112 (90)
Dysphasia
58/76 (76)
Headache
89/110 (81)
Autonomic dysfunction
53/88 (60)
Personality change
62/87 (71)
Ataxia
22/55 (40)
Seizures
73/109 (67)
Hemiparesis
41/107 (38)
Vomiting
51/111 (46)
Seizures
43/112 (38)
Hemiparesis
33/100 (33)
Focal
28
Memory loss
14/59 (24)
Generalized
10
Cranial nerve defects
34/105 (32)
Both
5
Visual field loss
8/58 (14)
Papilledema
16/111(14)
From Whitley et al.,
220
with permission.
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
157
key differentiating point is that a much larger
percentage of patients with ADEM present
with behavioral disturbances, whereas this is
rare early in multiple sclerosis. Occasionally
patients with ADEM may become stuporous
or comatose (see Patient 4–4), findings that are
also rare in early multiple sclerosis. CT or MRI
scan shows multifocal enhancing lesions in the
white matter, but these may appear late in the
illness (see Patient 4–4). Although the pathol-
ogy is distinct from multiple sclerosis, showing
mainly perivascular infiltration and demyelin-
ation, the appearance of the lesions on MRI scan
is essentially identical in the two illnesses. CSF
may show 100 or more white blood cells and an
elevation of protein, but may show no changes at
all; oligoclonal bands are often absent.
In most cases, it is difficult to distinguish
ADEM from first onset of multiple sclerosis.
The likelihood of ADEM is increased if the
patient has recently had a febrile illness, if the
illness is dominated by behavioral or cogni-
tive problems or impairment of consciousness,
or if there are large plaques in the hemispheric
white matter. However, the proof of the di-
agnosis is established by the course of the ill-
ness. Although ADEM can fluctuate, and new
symptoms and plaques can continue to ap-
pear for up to several weeks, it is essentially
a monotonic illness, whereas new lesions ap-
pearing after 1 or more months generally por-
tend the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Over-
all, in various series approximately one-third of
patients initially diagnosed with ADEM go on
to develop multiple sclerosis.
Treatment of ADEM also differs from mul-
tiple sclerosis. Although there has been no ran-
domized, controlled series, in our experience
patients often improve dramatically with oral
prednisone, 40 to 60 mg daily. The dose is then
tapered to the lowest maintenance level that
does not allow recrudescence of symptoms.
However, the patient may require oral steroid
treatment for months, or even a year or two.
Figure 4–11. A pair of magnetic resonance images from the brain of a patient with herpes simplex 1 encephalitis. Note
the preferential involvement of the medial temporal lobe and orbitofrontal cortex (arrows in A) and insular cortex (arrow
in B). There is milder involvement of the contralateral side.
158
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Patient 4–4
A 42-year-old secretary had pharyngitis, fever,
nausea, and vomiting, followed 3 days later by
confusion and progressive leg weakness. She came
to the emergency department, where she was found
to have a stiff neck, left abducens palsy, and mod-
erate leg weakness, with a sensory level at around
T8 to pin. She rapidly became stuporous, then co-
matose, with flaccid quadriplegia.
Spinal fluid showed 81 white blood cells/mm
3
,
with 87% lymphocytes, protein 66 mg/dL, and glu-
cose 66 mg/dL. An MRI scan of the brain and the
spinal cord, including contrast, at the time of onset
of impaired consciousness and then again 2 days
later did not show any abnormalities. She required
intubation and mechanical ventilation. A repeat MRI
scan on day 8 demonstrated patchy, poorly margin-
ated areas of T2 signal hyperintensity in the white
matter of both cerebral hemispheres, the brainstem,
and the cerebellum, consistent with ADEM. She was
treated with corticosteroids and over a period of 3
months, recovered, finished rehabilitation, and was
able to resume her career and playing tennis.
CONCUSSION AND OTHER
TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES
Traumatic brain injury, a common cause of
coma, is usually easily established because
there is a history or external signs of head in-
jury at the time of presentation. Nevertheless,
because so many traumatic events occur in
individuals who are already impaired by drug
ingestion or comorbid illnesses (e.g., hypogly-
cemia in a diabetic), other causes of loss of
consciousness must always be considered. The
nature of the traumatic intracranial process
that produces impairment of consciousness re-
quires rapid evaluation, as compressive pro-
cesses such as epidural or subdural hematoma
may need immediate surgical intervention.
Once these have been ruled out, however, the
underlying traumatic brain injury may itself be
sufficient to cause coma.
Traumatic brain injury that causes coma
falls into two broad classes: closed head trauma
and direct brain injury as a result of pene-
trating head trauma. Penetrating head trauma
may directly injure the ascending arousal sys-
tem, or it may lead to hemorrhage or edema
that further impairs brain function. These is-
sues have been discussed in Chapter 3. An
additional consideration is that trauma suffi-
cient to cause head injury may also involve the
neck, with dissection of a carotid or vertebral
artery. These considerations are covered in the
sections on vascular occlusions. The discussion
that follows will focus primarily on the injuries
that occur to the brain as a result of closed
head trauma.
Mechanism of Brain Injury During
Closed Head Trauma
During closed head trauma, several physical
forces may act upon the brain to cause injury. If
the injuring force is applied focally, the skull is
briefly distorted and a shock wave is transmitted
to the underlying brain. This shock wave can be
particularly intense when the skull is struck a
glancing blow by a high-speed projectile, such
as a bullet. As demonstrated in Patient 3–2, the
bullet need not penetrate the skull or even frac-
ture the bone to transmit enough kinetic energy
to injure the underlying brain.
A second mechanism of injury occurs when
the initial blow causes the head to snap back-
ward or forward, to the point where it is stop-
ped either by the limits of neck movement or
by another solid object (a wall or floor, a head
restraint in a car, etc.). The initial blow causes
the skull to accelerate against the underlying
brain, which floats semi-independently in a
pool of CSF. The brain then accelerates to the
same speed as the skull, but when the skull’s
trajectory is suddenly stopped, the brain con-
tinues onward to strike the inner table of the
skull opposite the original site of the blow
(Figure 4–12). This coup-contrecoup injury
model was first described by Courville (1950)
and then documented in the pioneering studies
by Gurdjian,
224
who used high-speed motion
pictures to capture the brain and skull move-
ments in monkeys in whom the calvaria had
been replaced by a plastic dome. If the initial
blow is occipital, frontal and temporal lobe
damage may be worse than the damage at the
site of the blow because of the conformation
of the skull, which is smoothly curved at the
occipital pole but comes to a narrow angle at
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
159
the frontal and temporal poles. As a result of
this anatomy, it is not unusual for the greatest
damage to the brain to occur at these poles,
regardless of where the head is hit. Even in the
absence of parenchymal brain damage, move-
ment of the brain may shear off the delicate
olfactory nerve fibers exiting the skull through
the cribriform plate, causing anosmia.
Brain injury as a result of closed head trauma
may be either a contusion (an area of brain
edema visualized on CT or MRI) or focal hem-
orrhage. Even when no hemorrhage is seen ini-
tially on scan, it is not unusual for CSF to show
some blood if a lumbar puncture is done. The
hemorrhage itself is typically not large enough
to cause brain injury or dysfunction. However,
the blood may incite seizure activity. Seizures
occurring at the time of the head injury do not
necessarily herald a subsequent seizure disor-
der. Nevertheless, seizures themselves and the
Figure 4–12. A series of computed tomography (CT) scans, and postmortem brain examination, of a 74-year-old woman
who fell down a flight of stairs. She was initially alert and confused, but rapidly slipped into coma, which progressed to
complete loss of brainstem reflexes by the time she arrived at the hospital. CT scan showed left cerebellar contusion (A)
underlying an occipital fracture (C). There was a right frontal intraparenchymal hematoma and subdural hematoma (B).
The cerebellar and frontal contusions could be seen from the surface of the brain at autopsy to demonstrate a coup (oc-
cipital injury) and contrecoup (frontal contusion from impact against the inside of the skull) injury pattern (arrows in D).
160
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
following postictal state may complicate the
evaluation of the degree of brain injury.
A third mechanism of brain injury is due to
shearing force on long axonal tracts. Because
the long axis of the brainstem is located at about
an 80-degree angle with respect to the long axis
of the forebrain, the long tracts connecting the
forebrain with the brainstem and spinal cord
take an abrupt turn at the mesodiencephalic
junction. In addition, because the head is teth-
ered to the neck, which is not displaced by a
blow to the head, there is an additional rota-
tional displacement of the head, depending on
the angle of the blow. These movements of the
forebrain with respect to the brainstem produce
a transverse sheering force at the mesodience-
phalic juncture, resulting in diffuse axonal in-
jury to the long tracts that run between the
forebrain and brainstem.
225–228
Mechanism of Loss of
Consciousness in Concussion
The term concussion refers to transient alter-
ation in mental status that may or may not
involve loss of consciousness, resulting from
trauma to the brain.
229–231
Although the most
dramatic symptom of concussion is transient
coma, the hallmarks of the disorder are amne-
sia and confusion; other symptoms may include
headache, visual disturbances, and dizziness.
The mechanism of loss of consciousness
with a blow to the head is not completely un-
derstood. However, in experiments by Gen-
narelli and colleagues, using an apparatus to
accelerate the heads of monkeys without skull
impact, rotational acceleration in the sagittal
plane typically produced only brief loss of
consciousness, whereas acceleration from the
lateral direction caused mainly prolonged and
severe coma.
227
Brief loss of consciousness,
which in humans is usually not associated with
any changes on CT or MRI scan, may be due to
the shearing forces transiently applied to the
ascending arousal system at the mesodience-
phalic junction. Physiologically, the concussion
causes abrupt neuronal depolarization and
promotes release of excitatory neurotransmit-
ters. There is an efflux of potassium from cells
with calcium influx into cells and sequestra-
tion in mitochondria leading to impaired oxi-
dative metabolism. There are also alterations
in cerebral blood flow and glucose metabo-
lism, all of which impair neuronal and axonal
function.
231
Longer term loss of consciousness may be
due to mechanical injury to the brain, a con-
dition that Adams and colleagues termed dif-
fuse axonal injury.
225
Examination of the brains
of animals with prolonged unconsciousness in
the Gennarelli experiments was associated with
diffuse axonal injury (axonal retraction balls
and microglial clusters in the white matter, in-
dicating a site of injury) and with hemorrhagic
injury to the corpus callosum and to the dorsal
surface of the mesopontine junction. These
sites underlie the free edge of the falx and the
tentorium, respectively. Hence, in these cases
the brain displacement is presumably severe
enough to hammer the free dural edges against
the underlying brain with sufficient force to
cause local tissue necrosis and hemorrhage.
Similar pathology was seen in 45 human cases
of traumatic closed head injury, all of whom
died without awakening after the injury.
225,226
Contusion or hemorrhage into the corpus cal-
losum or dorsolateral mesopontine tegmentum
may be visible on MRI scan, but diffuse axonal
injury generally is not. Magnetic resonance
spectroscopy may be useful in evaluating pa-
tients with diffuse axonal injury, who typically
have a reduction in N-acetylaspartate as well as
elevation of glutamate/glutamine and choline/
creatinine ratios.
232–234
Delayed Encephalopathy
After Head Injury
In some cases after an initial period of uncon-
sciousness after a closed head injury, the pa-
tient may awaken and the CT scan may be
normal, but then the patient may show cogni-
tive deterioration and lapse into coma hours to
several days later. This pattern was character-
ized by Reilly and colleagues as patients who
‘‘talk and die.’’
10,235
Repeat CT scan typically
shows areas of intraparenchymal edema and
perhaps hemorrhage, which may have shown
only minimal injury at the time of initial pre-
sentation. However, with the evolution of brain
edema over the next few hours and days, the
mass effect may reach a critical level at which
it impairs cerebral perfusion or causes brain
herniation.
This condition occurs most commonly in
children and young adults in whom the brain
Specific Causes of Structural Coma
161
usually fully occupies the intracranial space, so
that even minimal swelling may put the brain
at risk of injury. Elderly individuals, in whom
there has been some cerebral atrophy, may
have enough excess intracranial capacity to
avoid reaching this crossroad. On the other
hand, older individuals may be more likely to
deteriorate later due to subdural or epidural
hemorrhage or to injuries outside the nervous
system.
10
Hence, any patient with deteriora-
tion of wakefulness in the days following head
injury requires repeat and urgent scanning,
even if the original scan was normal.
More common is the so-called postconcus-
sion syndrome. This disorder is characterized
by headache, dizziness, irritability, and diffi-
culty with memory and attention after mild
concussion and particularly after repeated con-
cussions.
236
Because it often follows mild head
injury, psychologic factors have been imputed
by some, but the syndrome clearly appears to
result from mild although not anatomically
identifiable brain damage.
237
INFRATENTORIAL DESTRUCTIVE
LESIONS
Infratentorial destructive lesions causing coma
include hemorrhage, tumors, infections, and in-
farcts in the brainstem. Although hemorrhage
into tumors, infections, or masses also compress
normal tissue, they appear to have their major
effect in the brainstem through direct destruc-
tion of arousal systems.
If the lesion is large enough, patients with
destructive infratentorial lesions often lose con-
sciousness immediately, and the ensuing coma
is accompanied by distinctive patterns of re-
spiratory, pupillary, oculovestibular, and motor
signs that clearly indicate whether it is the
tegmentum of the midbrain, the rostral pons,
or the caudal pons that initially is most severely
damaged. The brainstem arousal system lies so
close to nuclei and pathways influencing the
pupils, eye movements, and other major func-
tions that primary brainstem destructive le-
sions that cause coma characteristically cause
focal neurologic signs that can precisely local-
ize the lesion anatomically. This restricted,
discrete localization is unlike metabolic lesions
causing coma, where the signs commonly indi-
cate incomplete but symmetric dysfunction and
few, if any, focal signs of brainstem dysfunction
(see Chapter 2). Primary brainstem injury also
is unlike the secondary brainstem dysfunction
that follows supratentorial herniation, in which
all functions above a given brainstem level tend
to be lost as the process descends from rostral
to caudal along the neuraxis.
Certain combinations of signs stand out
prominently in patients with infratentorial de-
structive lesions causing coma. At the midbrain
level, centrally placed brainstem lesions inter-
rupt the pathway for the pupillary light reflex
and often damage the oculomotor nuclei as well.
The resulting deep coma commonly is accom-
panied by pupils that are fixed at midposition or
slightly wider, by abnormalities of eye move-
ments due to damage to the third or fourth
nerves or their nuclei, and by long-tract motor
signs. These last-mentioned signs result from
involvement of the cerebral peduncles and com-
monly are bilateral, although asymmetric.
Destructive lesions of the rostral pons com-
monly spare the oculomotor nuclei but inter-
rupt the medial longitudinal fasciculus and the
adjacent ocular sympathetic pathways. Patients
typically have tiny pupils, internuclear oph-
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