MECHANISMS UNDERLYING
OUTCOMES OF SEVERE BRAIN
INJURY: NEUROIMAGING
STUDIES AND CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORKS
FUNCTIONAL IMAGING OF VEGETATIVE
STATE AND MINIMALLY
CONSCIOUS STATE
Atypical Behavioral Features in the Persistent
Vegetative State
Neuroimaging of Isolated Cortical Responses
in Persistent Vegetative State Patients
POTENTIAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING
RESIDUAL FUNCTIONAL CAPACITY
IN SEVERELY DISABLED PATIENTS
Variations of Structural Substrates
Underlying Severe Disability
The Potential Role of the Metabolic ‘‘Baseline’’
in Recovery of Cognitive Function
The Potential Role of Regionally Selective
Injuries Producing Widespread Effects
on Brain Function
ETHICS OF CLINICAL DECISION MAKING
AND COMMUNICATION WITH
SURROGATES (J.J. FINS)
Surrogate Decision Making, Perceptions,
and Needs
Professional Obligations and Diagnostic
Discernment
Time-Delimited Prognostication and Evolving
Brain States: Framing the Conversation
Family Dynamics and Philosophic
Considerations
341
INTRODUCTION
It is much more difficult to predict the out-
come for patients with severe brain damage
than to make the usually straightforward di-
agnosis of brain death. Brain death is a sin-
gle biologic state with an unequivocal future,
while severe brain injuries span a wide range
of outcomes (Figure 9–1) depending on a num-
ber of variables that include not only the de-
gree of neurologic injury, but also the pres-
ence and severity of medical complications.
Scientific, philosophic, and emotional uncer-
tainties that attend predictions of outcome
from brain damage can intimidate even the
most experienced physicians. Nevertheless,
the problem must be faced; physicians are fre-
quently called upon to treat patients with se-
vere degrees of neurologic dysfunction. To do
the job responsibly, the physician must orga-
nize available information to anticipate as ac-
curately as possible the likelihood that the pa-
tient will either recover or remain permanently
disabled. The physician’s role as a translator of
medical knowledge is essential in counseling
families who must make the ultimate decisions
concerning the care of an unconscious patient.
The financial and emotional costs of caring
for those left hopelessly damaged can exhaust
both family and medical staff. Physicians must
attempt to reduce those burdens, while at the
same time retaining an unwavering commit-
ment to do everything possible to treat those
who can benefit.
In the 26 years since the publication of the
third edition of Stupor and Coma, several groups
of neurologists and neurosurgeons have initi-
ated studies to identify and quantify early clin-
ical, neurophysiologic, radiologic, and biochem-
ical indicants that might predict outcome in co-
matose patients. These studies have identified
the etiology of injury, the clinical depth of coma,
and the length of time that a patient remains
comatose as the most critical factors. Additional
important factors include the age of the patient,
the neurologic findings, and concurrent med-
ical complications (particularly the complica-
tions of increased intracranial pressure [ICP]
and hypoxia in the setting of traumatic in-
MCS
Functional communication
Total functional loss
Cognitive function
Disorders of consciousness
Normal
Total functional
loss
Motor
function
Coma
VS
(PVS)
LIS*
Full
Cognitive
Recovery
Severe
to
Moderate
Cognitive
Disability
Figure 9–1. Conceptual overview of functional outcomes following severe brain injuries. Gray zone between vegetative
state (VS) and minimally conscious state (MCS) reflects rare patients with fragments of behavior that arise spontaneously
and not in response to stimulation. By nosologic criteria, these patients remain in VS (see page 365). The bold black line
indicates emergence from the minimally conscious state, defined by reliable functional communication. LIS, locked-in
state; PVS, persistent vegetative state. *LIS is not a disorder of consciousness. (Adapted from Schiff.
193
)
342
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
juries). Several limitations, as discussed below,
place stringent demands on physicians to care-
fully consider all available historical details and
the reliability of clinical and laboratory evalu-
ations in their consideration of prognosis for an
individual patient.
Prospective studies of prognosis in adults and
children indicate that within a few hours or days
after the onset of coma, neurologic signs and
electrophysiologic markers in many patients
differentiate, with a high degree of probability,
the extremes of no improvement or good recov-
ery. Unfortunately, radiologic and biochemical
indicators have generally provided less accu-
rate predictions of outcome, with some excep-
tions discussed below. Accurate prognostica-
tion improves over time, but it is still unclear
how early one can make accurate predictions
within different diagnostic categories (e.g.,
vegetative state [VS] vs. minimally conscious
state [MCS]). The first section of this chapter
details what we now know about prognosis, em-
phasizing broad outcome categories and short-
term outcomes rather than outcomes beyond
a year or longer, although we recognize that
rarely, even severely brain-injured patients
may improve after many years (see page 371).
We use the scheme in Table 9–1 to assess
the reliability of the data presented in this
section.
The second section addresses mechanisms
that may underlie recovery, or lack thereof,
from coma. Severe cognitive disabilities can
arise from at least two fairly different anatomic
injuries: (1) extensive, relatively uniform dif-
fuse axonal injury or hypoxic-ischemic damage
causing widespread neuronal death and (2)
focal cerebral injuries causing functional al-
teration of integrative systems in the upper
brainstem and thalamus. New studies suggest
that physiologic correlates of brain function
in some severely disabled patients with rela-
tively intact cerebral structures may ultimately
lead to identification of residual cerebral ca-
pacities.
Figure 9–1 shows a conceptual organization
of functional outcomes following severe brain
injuries and indicates that a very wide range
of cognitive capacities may be present in the
setting of impaired motor function, including
normal cognition in the locked-in state (LIS).
In this section we discuss advances in neuro-
imaging aimed at uncovering the biologic dis-
tinctions that underlie VS, persistent vegetative
state (PVS), MCS, and related enduring disor-
ders of consciousness following coma. Despite
the relatively small number of studies in this
area to date, functional imaging has added to
our general understanding of pathophysiologic
mechanisms in VS. Ongoing work in MCS pa-
tients suggests that significant physiologic differ-
ences in brain function will generally separate
these categories.
The third section addresses important ethi-
cal considerations in dealing with comatose
patients and their families and caregivers.
PROGNOSIS IN COMA
Coma has a grave prognosis. For the two most
carefully studied etiologies of coma, traumatic
brain injury and cardiopulmonary arrest, mor-
tality ranges from 40% to 50% and 54% to
88%,
2
respectively. These statistics have actu-
ally improved since the last edition of Stupor
and Coma, because of better acute manage-
ment both in the field and in intensive care.
Beyond mortality statistics, very few studies of
prognosis in coma have looked at large num-
bers of patients for careful evaluation of out-
comes other than survival or death. These in-
dicate that patients comatose from traumatic
brain injury have a significantly better progno-
sis than patients with anoxic injuries. For ex-
ample, of 1,000 trauma patients in coma for
at least 6 hours, 39% recovered independent
function at 6 months,
3
whereas only 16% of 500
patients suffering nontraumatic coma made
similar recoveries at 1 year.
4
Statistics such as the above, however, are too
coarse to guide individual patient management.
Table 9–1 Levels of Evidence
Level I
Data from randomized trials with
low false-positive (alpha) and low
false-negative (beta) errors
Level II
Data from randomized trials with
high false-positive (alpha) or high
false-negative (beta) errors
Level III
Data from nonrandomized
concurrent cohort studies
Level IV
Data from nonrandomized cohort
studies using historical controls
Level V
Data from anecdotal case series
Modified from Broderick et al.
1
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
343
That step requires clinical judgment combined
with accurate knowledge of the medical liter-
ature, as applied specifically to the patient’s his-
tory and awareness of common diagnostic pit-
falls. This section reviews efforts to predict
outcome from coma for different etiologies. The
reader will find that the literature continues to
provide little specific information about the kind
of outcome enjoyed or suffered by patients.
5
As a result, except where specified, descrip-
tions of recovery from coma often connote little
more than survival and fail to tell one about the
social, vocational, or emotional outcome (i.e.,
the human qualities) of the life that followed.
The Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS; Table
9–2) originates from a study of outcome fol-
lowing nontraumatic coma in 500 patients. The
definitions attempted to identify fairly precisely
what was meant by each grade of outcome.
Only a small number of outcomes were chosen
in the hope that sufficient numbers of patients
would fall into each class to allow statistical
analysis, but that important differences in med-
ical and social recovery would not be excessively
blurred. A shortcoming of this classification is
that the category of severe disability (3) is too
broad in that it includes all patients who cannot
function independently, from those minimally
conscious to those almost independent. There
still exists a need for further subdivision and
consideration of outcomes in the severely dis-
abled group, as discussed below. An important
limitation in evaluating the prognostic data in
the literature is that some studies conflate
death, VS, and severely disabled but conscious
outcomes of coma survivors. For example, when
using the prognostic data provided below, care
should be taken to distinguish indicators of
death from those indicating outcomes including
severe disability, which remains a very broad
category. Moreover, many outcome studies do
not provide sufficient follow-up of subjects to
assess outcomes of permanent VS. To allow
comparisons across studies, this chapter indi-
cates the GOS cutoff score used in each report
below and does not categorize outcomes as
‘‘good,’’ ‘‘bad,’’ ‘‘favorable,’’ or ‘‘unfavorable.’’
Another fundamental issue in determining a
prognosis for any individual patient is the eti-
ology of injury. It must be recognized that the
overwhelming weight of medical knowledge
for prognosis in coma falls into two large cate-
gories: traumatic brain injury (TBI) and anoxic-
ischemicencephalopathy(AIE).Unfortunately,
there are many additional etiologies that can
produce coma and related disorders of con-
sciousness, and it is often not possible simply
to place an individual patient with another
etiology into the context of TBI or AIE. Where
possible, information specific to other etiolo-
gies is provided below, but the physician should
recognize this general limitation when formu-
lating a prognosis for a comatose patient who
has not suffered a traumatic brain injury or car-
diac arrest.
PROGNOSIS BY DISEASE STATE
Traumatic Brain Injury
More effort has been directed at trying to pre-
dict outcome from TBI than from any other
cause of coma. This emphasis reflects the high
prevalence of TBI (estimated at 1.5 to 2.0
million persons per year in the United States
6
),
the young age of most patients (peak 15 to 24
years old), and the enormous financial, social,
and emotional impact of the illness that may
persist for decades. Coma arising from TBI has
Table 9–2 Glasgow Outcome
Scale (GOS)
Good recovery (5)
Patients who regain the
ability to conduct a
normal life or, if a
pre-existing disability
exists, to resume the
previous level of activity
Moderate
disability (4)
Patients who achieve
independence in daily
living but retain either
physical or mental
limitations that preclude
resuming their previous
level of function
Severe disability (3)
Patients who regain at least
some cognitive function
but depend on others for
daily support
Vegetative state (2)
Patients who awaken but
give no sign of cognitive
awareness
No recovery (1)
Patients who remain in
coma until death
From Jennett and Bond,
5
with permission.
344
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
a better prognosis than nontraumatic coma,
possibly because patients are usually younger
and the pathophysiology differs from other
types of coma. Recovery after prolonged trau-
matic coma is well described and, unlike non-
traumatic causes, unconsciousness for 1 month
does not necessarily preclude significant re-
covery. Severe head injury causing 6 hours or
more of coma still carries a 40% probability of
recovering to a level of moderate disability or
better.
7
A comprehensive literature review by
the Brain Trauma Foundation in 2000
8
orga-
nizes evidence-based data for early prognostic
signs in TBI; class I prognostic evidence is
listed in Table 9–3.
The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score has
at least a 70% positive predictive value (PPV)
for an outcome less than 4 on the GOS, if eval-
uations done after cardiopulmonary resuscita-
tion were performed after sedative and para-
lytic agents had been metabolized. Gennarelli
and colleagues
9
found a progressive increase
in mortality for patients with descending GCS
scores in the 3 to 8 range in 46,977 head-
injured patients. Two studies provide class I
evidence for the predictive value of the GCS.
Narayan and associates
10
prospectively studied
133 patients of all age ranges and found that
62% of patients with a GCS of 3 to 5, when
examined either in the emergency room or
on admission to an intensive care unit, at later
evaluation had a GOS of 1 (Table 9–1). Braak-
man and colleagues
11
prospectively studied 305
patients and correlated GOS level 1 outcomes
in 100% of patients with a GCS of 3, 80% with
a GCS of 4, and 68% with a GCS of 5. The
several studies examined in the Brain Trauma
Foundation review support a survival rate of
20% for patients with the lowest GCS scores
and an outcome above the level of severe dis-
ability (GOS 4 or 5) in 8% to 10% of the pa-
tients, limiting the use of the GCS alone for
prognosis.
MOTOR FINDINGS
A reasonably good indication of outcome can
be obtained by testing motor responses to
noxious stimulation.
12,13
Abnormal flexor (de-
corticate), abnormal extensor (decerebrate), or
predominantly flaccid responses in patients
with severe head injury denote an outcome of
less than 4 on the GOS in every reported se-
ries. By 6 hours, motor responses no better than
abnormal flexor were associated with a mortal-
ity of 63%, while abnormal extensor or flaccid
responses predicted an 83% mortality.
7
Un-
fortunately, the European Brain Injury Con-
sortium found that the motor score of the GCS
was untestable in 28% of 1,005 patients at the
time of admission to a neurosurgery service,
and that the full GCS score could not be as-
sessed in 44% patients due to prehospital med-
ications and management with intubation.
12
Testing of the motor response by application
of nail-bed or supraorbital pressure is consid-
ered most reliable but may be complicated by
tissue injury (e.g., periorbital swelling or quad-
riplegia).
14,15
AGE
Advanced age unfavorably influences outcome
in traumatic coma. Paradoxically, elderly pa-
tients may require a much longer recovery time,
so it is risky to predict ultimate recovery early
in the course. Of 600 patients with severe head
injury causing coma, 56% of those younger
than age 20 recovered to a GOS of 4 or 5. This
number fell to 39% between age 20 and 59
years and to only 5% among those older than
Table 9–3 Class I Evidence for Early
Prognosis in Coma Due to Traumatic
Brain Injury
I. Glasgow Coma Scale (see Chapter 1):
worsening outcome grades in continuous
stepwise manner with lower GCS score
II. Age: 70% positive predictive value (PPV) with
increasingly worse outcome in continuous
and stepwise manner associated with
increasing age
III. Absent pupillary responses: 70% PPV of an
outcome <4 on the GOS
IV. Hypotension/hypoxia: systolic blood pressure
<
90 mm Hg has a 67% PPV for an
outcome <4 on the GOS outcome,
and 79% PPV when combined with
evidence of hypoxia
V. Computed tomography imaging abnormalities:
70% PPV of an outcome <4 on the GOS
with initial abnormalities including
compression, effacement, or blood within
the basal cisterns, or extensive traumatic
subarachnoid hemorrhage
Developed from the Brain Trauma Foundation Manage-
ment and Prognosis of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.
8
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
345
60 years.
16
In a prospective study of 372 pa-
tients with a GCS score of less than 13, age
older than 50 years and lower GCS scores cor-
related with higher mortality.
16
A prospective
series with 2,664 patients found an essentially
linear correlation of age and outcome follow-
ing severe brain injury.
17
The odds of an out-
come less than 4 on the GOS increased 40% to
50% for every 10 years of age as a continuous
variable. A meta-analysis of 5,600 patients iden-
tified a continuously worsening prognosis with
increasing age without a sharp stepwise drop
at any point.
17
Several factors, other than age
alone, may play a role in the association of age
with outcome in TBI. Data from the Traumatic
Coma Data Bank
8
reveal an increased inci-
dence of intracranial hemorrhage with age and
premorbid medical illnesses, but did not dem-
onstrate a significant statistical association.
NEURO-OPHTHALMOLOGIC SIGNS
The Brain Trauma Foundation review identi-
fied class I evidence that loss of pupillary light
reflexes has at least a 70% PPV for a poor
prognosis following TBI. Bilateral absence of
pupillary or oculocephalic responses or both at
any point in the illness predicts an outcome less
than 4 on the GOS. In one series, 95% of pa-
tients who had either bilaterally nonreactive
pupils or absent oculocephalic responses at 6
hours after injury died.
18
SECONDARY INJURIES
Hypotension, hypoxia, and uncontrolled intra-
cranial hypertension are independent predic-
tors of poor outcome. Class I evidence supports
a high likelihood of an outcome less than 4 on
the GOS in comatose TBI patients who suffer
either hypoxia or hypotension (defined as a
systolic blood pressure of less than 90 mm Hg)
early in the course. A single episode of hypo-
tension (arterial line reading) is associated with
a doubling of mortality and a significant in-
crease in morbidity.
8
NEUROIMAGING
Several neuroimaging findings correlate with
outcome following TBI. Class I and strong class
II evidence identifies several computed tomog-
raphy (CT) findings that predict outcome
8
; ac-
curate interpretation requires consideration of
the type of brain injury (e.g., focal brain inju-
ries vs. diffuse axonal injury). The majority of
patients with TBI have an abnormal CT scan,
but certain findings carry a stronger predictive
value for an outcome less than 4 on the GOS.
Compression of the basal cisterns, a reliable
indicator of increased ICP, is a strong negative
predictor in several studies
19
(see
8
for review).
Midline shift of brain structures, another indi-
cator of increased ICP, is also a predictor of an
outcome less than 4 on the GOS.
20
A midline
shift of greater than 1.5 cm has a 70% PPV of
death.
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