8
Other CT findings that predict an out-
come less than 4 on the GOS include traumatic
subarachnoid hemorrhage in the suprasellar or
ambient cisterns, and mass lesions (intracere-
bral hematoma, variable density CT abnormal-
ities, epidural and subdural hematomas).
DURATION OF COMA
Figure 9–2 reproduces Carlsson and col-
leagues’
21
classic diagram (1968) of the effect of
duration of TBI-induced coma on outcomes at
different ages. Not surprisingly, the longer the
coma lasts, the worse the outcome is. Although
length of coma provides a good indication of
severity of brain damage, it can be determined
only retrospectively when the patient awakens
and thus cannot be used for early prognosis of
outcome. On the other hand, it can be pre-
dicted with some confidence that a patient in
prolonged coma is unlikely to recover. The
same limitation applies to efforts to correlate
outcomes of recovery of cognitive functions
with the duration of posttraumatic amnesia.
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGIC MARKERS
Electrophysiologic measures have limited ef-
fectiveness in assessing TBI outcome. Several
electroencephalographic (EEG) abnormalities
are seen following TBI,
22
and although EEG is
useful for the identification of treatable com-
plications of head trauma such as seizures, it
does not predict outcome. Somatosensory-
evoked potentials (SSEPs) are a better indica-
tor.
23
Bilateral absence of cortical components
of SSEPs strongly correlates with a GOS below
4
24
; in one small study, bilateral loss of SSEPs
predicted outcomes of death or VS in all pa-
tients,
25
but other reports indicate that bilat-
eral loss of cortical response in posttraumatic
coma may, on rare occasions, be associated with
346
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
favorable outcome.
26,27
In these published re-
ports, the measurements may have been con-
founded by sedating medications or the very
early testing of the evoked potentials. Logi
and associates
24
prospectively studied 131 co-
matose patients of varying etiologies, includ-
ing head trauma patients (N ¼ 22), and found
100% specificity for bilateral absence of corti-
cal responses predicting nonawakening when
sedating medications had been withdrawn and
there were no other metabolic disturbances.
Other electrophysiologic markers, including
cognitive event-related potentials,
28
might pro-
vide better prognostic value in future studies.
Lew and colleagues
25
suggested that the P300
response elicited by spoken words such as
‘‘mommy’’ may find use as an early predictor of
outcomes greater than 3 on the GOS for coma-
tose TBI patients. However, Perrin and asso-
ciates
29
found that similar P300 paradigms
could not differentiate patients remaining in
VS studied months after injury from other pa-
tients recovering to higher functional levels.
BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS
Elevated serum levels of glial fibrillary acidic
protein (GFAP), part of the astroglial skeleton,
and S100B, an astroglial protein, have been
reported to predict mortality.
30
In 42 severely
injured adults studied within 7 days of injury,
the ratio of glutamate/glutamine (Glx) and cho-
line (Cho) was significantly elevated in occipital
gray and parietal white matter in patients who
showed long-term (6- to 12-month) outcomes
of less than 4 on the GOS.
31
Nontraumatic Coma
PROSPECTIVE ANALYSES
OF OUTCOME FROM
NONTRAUMATIC COMA
In the late 1960s, a team of investigators at The
New York Hospital, led by Dr. Plum and co-
workers, in close association with Dr. Jennett
and colleagues in Glasgow, undertook pro-
spective studies of the outcome from coma as
caused by medical disorders.
4
Collaborating
with the Royal Victoria Hospital, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, United Kingdom, and the San
Francisco General Hospital, the investigators
ultimately evaluated 500 patients in acute non-
traumatic coma. All patients over 12 years old,
save those with head trauma or exogenous in-
toxication in acute coma, were identified and
repeatedly examined. Meticulous efforts were
made to examine every patient in coma us-
ing examining techniques that guaranteed
consistency of observation. To avoid bias, the
1
100
Percent restituted patients
Days coma time
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2
3
4
5
6
7
intercept
13 days
8
9
10
51– years
21–50 years
0–20 years
Figure 9–2. Percentage of patients who recovered full consciousness as a function of duration of coma for several age
groups. (From Carlsson et al.,
21
with permission.)
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
347
examiners refrained from either making rec-
ommendations for therapy or disclosing pre-
liminary results to the treating staffs. The pa-
tients were followed for a minimum of 12
months (unless death occurred first) and many
for much longer (only two of the 500 patients
were lost to follow-up). This large population
provided landmark data on substantial num-
bers of individuals in each of the major disease
categories, permitting correlations between
outcome and both the severity of early signs of
neurologic dysfunction and the specific etiol-
ogy of coma. Subsequent studies have largely
confirmed the conclusions drawn from this
patient population, including larger prospec-
tive studies of coma following cardiac arrest.
2
The results of the medical coma study in-
dicate that loss of consciousness lasting 6 hours
or more bestows a poor prognosis. Of the 500
patients, 379 (76%) died within the first month
and 88% had died by the end of a year. Three-
quarters of those dying by 1 month never re-
gained consciousness, and within that month,
only 15% of the entire 500 recovered to a GOS
of 4 or 5.
Table 9–4 charts the best 1-month recovery
by disease state. Some of the patients died dur-
ing that first month of nonneurologic causes,
but the table is constructed so as to indicate the
highest possible chance of recovery by the brain.
(Actual outcome from the illness in many in-
stances was worse than this best neurologic
state, because some patients who temporarily
recovered neurologically died from complica-
tions, such as recurrent cardiac arrhythmias,
infections, and pulmonary embolism.)
Nontraumatic coma, while always serious,
has a better outcome in some diseases than in
others. About 30% of patients with hepatic and
miscellaneous causes of coma recovered to a
GOS of 4 or 5, three times the recovery rate
of patients with vascular-ischemic neurologic
injuries (subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral
vascular diseases, and hypoxia-ischemia). The
difference is explained by most of the he-
patic and miscellaneous patients having re-
versible biochemical, infectious, or extracere-
bral intracranial (e.g., subdural hematoma)
lesions that may have transiently depressed
brain function, but nevertheless left the struc-
ture of the brain intact. By contrast, many pa-
tients with stroke or global cerebral ischemia
suffered destruction of brain structures crucial
for consciousness. Reflecting this difference,
the metabolic-miscellaneous group of patients
showed significantly fewer signs of severe
brainstem dysfunction than did those with
vascular-ischemic disorders. For example, cor-
neal responses were absent in fewer than 20%
of the metabolic group, but in more than 30%
of the remaining patients. Furthermore, when
patients with hepatic-miscellaneous causes of
coma did show abnormal neuro-ophthalmo-
logic signs (see below), their prognosis was as
poor as that of patients in the other disease
groups with similar signs.
Patients who survived medical coma had
achieved most of their improvement by the end
of the first month. Among the 121 patients still
living at 1 month, 61 died within the next year,
usually from progression or complication of
the illness that caused coma in the first place.
Table 9–4 Best One-Month Outcome Related to Cause of Coma
Best One-Month Outcome (%)
Cause of Coma
No
Recovery
Vegetative
State
Severe
Disability
Moderate
Disability
Good
Recovery
All patients (500)
61
12
12
5
10
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (38)
74
5
13
5
3
Other cerebrovascular disease (143)*
74
7
11
4
4
Hypoxia-ischemia (210)*
58
20
11
3
8
Hepatic encephalopathy (51)
49
2
16
10
23
Miscellaneous (58)*
45
10
14
5
6
*Hypoxia-ischemia includes 150 patients with cardiac arrest, 38 with profound hypotension, and 22 with respiratory arrest.
Other cerebrovascular diseases include 76 with brain infarcts and 67 with brain hemorrhage. Miscellaneous includes 19
patients with mixed metabolic disturbances and 16 with infection.
348
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
There were seven moderately disabled patients
who improved to a good recovery. Of 39 pa-
tients severely disabled at 1 month, nine later
improved to a good recovery or moderate dis-
ability rating. At the end of the year, three pa-
tients remained vegetative and four severely
disabled. While current patients may have a
greater chance of survival with modern thera-
pies, it is unfortunately not likely that they
would have a significantly different natural his-
tory after 1 month, suggesting that the data
from this series remain relevant.
The outcome was influenced by three major
clinical factors: the duration of coma, neuro-
ophthalmologic signs, and motor function. Of
somewhat lesser importance was the course of
recovery; a history of steady improvement was
generally more favorable than was initially bet-
ter function that remained unchanged for the
next several days. Only one patient who re-
mained in coma for a week recovered to a
GOS of 5 at 1 month. Conversely, the earlier
consciousness returned, the better was the
outcome. Among patients who awakened and
regained their mental faculties within 1 day,
nearly one-half achieved a GOS of 4 or 5,
compared with only 14% among those who at 1
day remained vegetative or in coma. Among pa-
tients who survived three days, 60% who were
awake and talked made a satisfactory recovery
within the first month, compared with only 5%
of those still vegetative or in a coma. Contrary
to initial expectations, no consistent relation-
ship emerged between age and prognosis ei-
ther for the study as a whole or for individual
illnesses. The sex of the patient had no appar-
ent influence on outcome. Coma of 6 hours or
more turned out to be such an innately seri-
ous state that in most cases it became difficult
to predict accurately who would do well (i.e.,
make a moderate or good recovery) much be-
fore the third day of illness. By contrast, about
one-third of patients destined to achieve a GOS
of 1 or 2 showed overwhelmingly strong indi-
cations of that outcome on admission.
As Table 9–5 immediately discloses, a po-
tentially bewildering amount of early clinical
information showed an association with out-
comes in patients with medical coma. To reduce
this mass of data to manageable proportions
and thereby sharpen the accuracy of prognosis
for physicians working at the bedside, Levy and
associates
32
constructed logic diagrams based
on the actual outcomes of patients showing
certain signs at various time intervals (Figure
9–3). In constructing these decision trees,
which give an estimate of prognosis based on
actual experience, the most important concern
was to be sure that signs denoted as implying a
GOS prognosis of 1 or 2 described virtually no
one (less than 3%) who achieved an ultimate
GOS of 4 or 5. One can immediately recognize
that an inaccurate estimate of prognosis could
result in the curtailing of potentially useful
treatment, a step to be avoided at almost all
costs. Chi-square testing of the decision crite-
ria given in Figure 9–3 against the actual find-
ings and outcomes of the 500 patients indicates
that all the discriminations have an accuracy of
association with p < 0.001.
Even as early as 6 hours after the onset of
coma, clinical signs identified 120 patients as
having virtually no chance of regaining inde-
pendent function (Figure 9–3A). Only one of
120 patients achieved even a brief functional
return equivalent to a moderate level of dis-
ability, a 19-year-old woman with cardiac arrest
associated with uremia who briefly improved
before dying the following week. The remain-
ing 380 patients could be divided on the basis
of their clinical findings into groups with rela-
tively better prognoses, the best having a 41%
chance of attaining independent function. Sim-
ilar discrimination was possible at 1 day (Fig-
ure 9–3B). At this time, 29 of the 87 patients
with the poorest prognosis survived 2 more
days and 10 survived at least a week; on the
other hand, 24 patients could be predicted as
recovering to an outcome of GOS 4 or 5, and
two-thirds of these actually regained indepen-
dent function. With the further passage of time
(Figure 9–3C, D), success at identifying pa-
tients with a prognosis of GOS 4 or 5 improved
even further.
Subsequent prospective evaluations of out-
come in medical coma have generally con-
firmed the accuracy of these original studies.
A prospective cohort study of 596 patients
with nontraumatic coma identified five clini-
cal variables that predicted 2-month mortal-
ity (Table 9–6).
33
This population reflected
mostly patients in coma following cardiac ar-
rest (31%), cerebral infarction, or intracerebral
hemorrhage (36%) (other etiologies included
subarachnoid hemorrhage, sepsis, neoplasm,
and infections). Patients with four of five clini-
cal findings of abnormal brainstem responses
(absent pupillary responses, absent corneal
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
349
reflexes, and absent or dysconjugate roving eye
movements), absent verbal response, absent
withdrawal to pain, age older than 70 years, or a
creatinine of greater than or equal to 1.5 mg/dL
(132 mmol/L) had a 97% mortality at 2 months.
An age-related worsening of prognosis was
identified in distinction from the Plum and Levy
study,
4
but may be partly confounded by co-
morbid systemic conditions. A prospective study
of 169 patients older than 10 years with non-
traumatic coma admitted to an intensive care
unit found that 75% of those with hypoxic or
ischemic injuries had died or remained coma-
tose at 2 weeks
34
(Table 9–7).
Table 9–5 Best One-Month Outcome in 500 Patients in Medical Coma
Versus Early Neurologic Signs—Original
Time (and Number) of
Subjects in Categories
Number (and Percentage)
of Patients Having Poor
Outcome (i.e., No Recovery
or Vegetative State)
Number (and Percentage)
of Patients Having Good
Outcome (i.e., Moderate
Disability or Good Recovery)
Admission
a. All patients (500)
365 (73)
75 (15)
b. Any two absent: corneals,
pupils, OC-OV (119)
117 (98)
1 (0.8)*
c. Remaining patients (381)
250 (66)
71 (19)
One day
a. Surviving patients (387)
256 (66)
74 (19)
b. Any two absent: corneals,
pupils, OV-OC, motor (86)
85 (99)
1 (1)*
c. OC or OV normal, or roving
eye movements, or orienting
eye movements (159)
64 (40)
58 (36)
d. Comprehensible words (25)
15 (60)
e. Voluntary motor responses (40)
20 (50)
Three Days
a. Surviving patients (261)
135 (52)
71 (27)
b. Absence of any: corneals,
pupils, OV-OC, spontaneous
eye movements (63)
61 (97)
0
c. Presence of any of the following: (106)
Comprehensive words (68)
1 (2)
47 (69)
Obeys commands (55)
0
36 (65)
Orienting eye movements (69)
3 (4)
48 (70)
Normal OC or OV (64)
5 (8)
43 (67)
Localizing motor response (93)
3 (3)
56 (60)
Seven Days
a. Surviving patients (179)
63 (35)
63 (35)
b. Absence of any: corneals, pupils,
OC-OV, spontaneous eye
movements, motor response (24)
20 (83)
0
c. Presence of any of the following: (111)
Comprehensive words (86)
0
62 (72)
Obeys commands (74)
0
49 (66)
Orienting eye movements (84)
3 (4)
59 (70)
Normal OC or OV (70)
4 (5.7)
60 (86)
Localizing motor response (100)
3 (3)
66 (66)
*This patient died within a month.
350
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
How is one to act on these predictions? The
physician, together with the patient’s health
care proxy and family, must decide. A patient
who has been in coma for 6 hours from a known
nonpharmacologic cause, without pupillary re-
sponses or eye movements, has essentially
no chance of making a satisfactory recovery.
Knowledge of this prognosis will deter many
physicians from applying heroic and extraor-
dinary measures of care. (Nevertheless, such
patients may be candidates for well-controlled
new or unconventional treatments, as con-
ventional therapy offers such a dismal out-
come.) Conversely, a seriously ill and still
unresponsive patient who shows normal eye or
motor signs at 1 to 3 days following cardiac
arrest has about a 30% chance of recovering
to a GOS of 4 or 5. This information should
provide strong encouragement to intensive
care staff members. The latter individuals of-
ten feel they are working blindly and with
little chance of success when caring for pa-
tients who have suffered brain injury. Knowl-
edge of a potentially favorable outcome greatly
improves morale and the associated level of
care.
Any 2 reactive?
Number
of
patients
Best one-year recovery
No Recov
Veg State
Corneal
Pupil
Oculovestibular
500 PATIENTS at ADMISSION
Yes
A
Verbal:
Moans?
No
Motor:
Withdrawal?
No
No
120
83
135
106
56
97%
80%
69%
58%
46%
Sev Disab
2%
8%
14%
19%
13%
Mod Disab
Good Recov
1%
12%
17%
23%
41%
No
Motor:
Ext or flex?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Any 3 reactive?
Number
of
patients
Best one-year recovery
No Recov
Veg State
Corneal
Pupil
Oculovestibular
Motor
387 PATIENTS at 1 DAY
Yes
B
Verbal:
At least
inappropriate
words?
No
Motor:
At least
withdrawal?
No
No
87
36
104
136
24
98%
84%
76%
42%
0%
Sev Disab
0%
11%
13%
21%
33%
Mod Disab
Good Recov
2%
4%
11%
37%
67%
No
Any 1 present?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Oculocephalic: NL
Oculovestibular: NL
Spont eye movt: NL
Motor: ext or flex
Both Reactive?
Number
of
patients
Best one-year recovery
No Recov
Veg State
Corneal
motor
261 PATIENTS at 3 DAYS
Yes
C
Verbal:
No
No
56
62
75
68
96%
76%
40%
0%
Sev Disab
4%
16%
27%
26%
Mod Disab
Good Recov
0%
8%
33%
74%
No
Motor:
Yes
Yes
Eye opening:
Number
of
patients
Best one-year recovery
No Recov
Veg State
At least
to pain?
179 PATIENTS at 7 DAYS
Yes
D
Motor:
26
54
99
92%
63%
1%
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