nerves cross the posterior cerebral artery and
run along the posterior communicating artery
to penetrate through the dural edge at the
petroclinoid ligament and enter the cavernous
sinus. Along this course, the oculomotor nerves
run along the medial edge of the temporal lobe
(Figure 3–5). The uncus, which represents the
bulging medial surface of the amygdala within
the medial temporal lobe, usually sits over the
tentorial opening, and its medial surface may
even be grooved by the tentorium.
A key relationship in the pathophysiology of
supratentorial mass lesions is the close prox-
imity of the oculomotor nerve to the posterior
Box 3–1 Historical View of the Pathophysiology
of Brain Herniation
In the 19th century, many neurologists thought that supratentorial lesions caused
stupor or coma by impairing function of the cortical mantle, although the mecha-
nism was not understood. Cushing proposed that the increase in ICP caused im-
pairment of blood flow, especially to the medulla.
27
He was able to show that
translation of pressure waves from the supratentorial compartments to the lower
brainstem may occur in experimental animals. Similarly, in young children, a supra-
tentorial pressure wave may compress the medulla, causing an increase in blood
pressure and fall in heart rate (the Cushing reflex). Such responses are rare in
adults, who almost always show symptoms of more rostral brainstem failure before
developing symptoms of lower brainstem dysfunction.
The role of temporal lobe herniation through the tentorial notch was appreciated
by MacEwen in the 1880s, who froze and then serially cut sections through the
heads of patients who died from temporal lobe abscesses.
28
His careful descriptions
demonstrated that the displaced medial surface of the temporal uncus compressed
the oculomotor nerve, causing a dilated pupil. In the 1920s, Meyer
29
pointed out the
importance of temporal lobe herniation into the tentorial gap in patients with brain
tumors; Kernohan and Woltman
30
demonstrated the lateral compression of the
brainstem produced by this process. They noted that lateral shift of the midbrain
compressed the cerebral peduncle on the side opposite the tumor against the oppo-
site tentorial edge, resulting in ipsilateral hemiparesis. In the following decade, the
major features of the syndrome of temporal lobe herniation were clarified, and the
role of the tentorial pressure cone was widely appreciated as a cause of symptoms in
patients with coma.
More recently, the role of lateral displacement of the diencephalon and upper
brainstem versus downward displacement of the same structures in causing coma
has received considerable attention.
31,32
Careful studies of the displacement of
midline structures, such as the pineal gland, in patients with coma due to forebrain
mass lesions demonstrate that the symptoms are due to distortion of the structures
at the mesodiencephalic junction, with the rate of displacement being more im-
portant than the absolute value or direction of the movement.
Structural Causes of Stupor and Coma
97
Figure 3–3. The intracranial compartments are separated by tough dural leaflets. (A) The falx cerebri separates the two
cerebral hemispheres into separate compartments. Excess mass in one compartment can lead to herniation of the cingulate
gyrus under the falx. (From Williams, PL, and Warwick, R. Functional Neuroanatomy of Man. WB Saunders, Philadelphia,
1975, p. 986. By permission of Elsevier B.V.) (B) The midbrain occupies most of the tentorial opening, which separates the
supratentorial from the infratentorial (posterior fossa) space. Note the vulnerability of the oculomotor nerve to both her-
niation of the medial temporal lobe and aneurysm of the posterior communicating artery.
98
communicating artery (Figure 3–4) and the me-
dial temporal lobe (Figure 3–5). Compression
of the oculomotor nerve by either of these struc-
tures results in early injury to the pupillodilator
fibers that run along its dorsal surface
37
; hence,
a unilateral dilated pupil frequently heralds a
neurologic catastrophe.
The other ocular motor nerves are generally
not involved in early transtentorial herniation.
The trochlear nerves emerge from the dorsal
surface of the midbrain just caudal to the inferior
colliculi. These slender fiber bundles wrap
around the lateral surface of the midbrain and
follow the third nerve through the petroclinoid
ligament into the cavernous sinus. Because the
free edge of the tentorium sits over the posterior
edge of the inferior colliculi, severe trauma that
displaces the brainstem back into the unyielding
edge of the tentorium may result in hemor-
rhage into the superior cerebellar peduncles and
the surrounding parabrachial nuclei.
38,39
The
trochlear nerves may also be injured in this way.
40
Figure 3–4. The basilar artery is tethered at the top to the posterior cerebral arteries, and at its lower end to the vertebral
arteries. As a result, either upward or downward herniation of the brainstem puts at stretch the paramedian feeding vessels
that leave the basilar at a right angle and supply the paramedian midbrain and pons. The posterior cerebral arteries can be
compressed by the medial temporal lobes when they herniate through the tentorial notch. (From Netter, FH. The CIBA Col-
lection of Medical Illustrations. CIBA Pharmaceuticals, New Jersey, 1983, p. 46. By permission of CIBA Pharmaceuticals.)
Structural Causes of Stupor and Coma
99
The abducens nerves emerge from the ven-
tral surface of the pons and run along the ven-
tral surface of the midbrain to enter the cavern-
ous sinus as well. Abducens paralysis is often a
nonspecific sign of increased
41
or decreased
42
(e.g., after a lumbar puncture or CSF leak) ICP.
However, the abducens nerves are rarely dam-
aged by supratentorial or infratentorial mass le-
sions unless they invade the cavernous sinus or
displace the entire brainstem downward.
The foramen magnum, at the lower end of
the posterior fossa, is the only means by which
brain tissue may exit from the skull. Hence,
just as progressive enlargement of a supraten-
torial mass lesion inevitably results in hernia-
tion through the tentorial opening, continued
downward displacement either from an ex-
panding supratentorial or infratentorial mass
lesion ultimately causes herniation of the cere-
bellum and the brainstem through the fora-
men magnum.
43
Here the medulla, the cere-
bellar tonsils, and the vertebral arteries are
juxtaposed. Usually, a small portion of
the cerebellar tonsils protrudes into the aper-
ture (and may even be grooved by the poste-
rior lip of the foramen magnum). However,
when the cerebellar tonsils are compressed
against the foramen magnum during tonsillar
herniation, compression of the tissue may
compromise its blood supply, causing tissue
infarction and further swelling.
Patterns of Brain Shifts That
Contribute to Coma
There are seven major patterns of brain shift:
falcine herniation, lateral displacement of the
diencephalon, uncal herniation, central trans-
tentorial herniation, rostrocaudal brainstem de-
terioration, tonsillar herniation, and upward
brainstem herniation. The first five patterns are
caused by supratentorial mass lesions, whereas
tonsillar herniation and upward brainstem her-
niation usually result from infratentorial mass
lesions, as described below.
Falcine herniation occurs when an expanding
lesion presses the cerebral hemisphere medially
against the falx (Figure 3–2A). The cingulate
gyrus and the pericallosal and callosomarginal
arteries are compressed against the falx and may
be displaced under it. The compression of the
pericallosal and callosomarginal arteries causes
ischemia in the medial wall of the cerebral hemi-
sphere that swells and further increases the com-
pression. Eventually, the ischemia may advance
to frank infarction, which increases the cerebral
mass effect further.
44
Lateral displacement of the diencephalon oc-
curs when an expanding mass lesion, such as
a basal ganglionic hemorrhage, pushes the di-
encephalon laterally (Figure 3–2B). This pro-
cess may be monitored by displacement of the
calcified pineal gland, whose position with re-
spect to the midline is easily seen on plain CT
scanning.
45
This lateral displacement is roughly
correlated with the degree of impairment of con-
sciousness: 0 to 3 mm is associated with alert-
ness, 3 to 5 mm with drowsiness, 6 to 8 mm with
stupor, and 9 to 13 mm with coma.
1
Uncal herniation occurs when an expanding
mass lesion usually located laterally in one ce-
rebral hemisphere forces the medial edge of the
temporal lobe to herniate medially and down-
ward over the free tentorial edge into the ten-
torial notch (Figure 3–2). In contrast to central
Figure 3–5. Relationship of the oculomotor nerve to the
medial temporal lobe. Note that the course of the oculo-
motor nerve takes it along the medial aspect of the temporal
lobe where uncal herniation can compress its dorsal surface.
(From Williams, PL, and Warwick, R. Functional Neuroan-
atomy of Man. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1975, p. 929.
By permission of Elsevier B.V.)
100
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
herniation, in which the first signs are mainly
those of diencephalic dysfunction, in uncal her-
niation the most prominent signs are due to
pressure of the herniating temporal lobe on the
structures that occupy the tentorial notch.
The key sign associated with uncal herniation
is an ipsilateral fixed and dilated pupil due to
compression of the dorsal surface of the ocu-
lomotor nerve. There is usually also evidence
of some impairment of ocular motility by this
stage, but it may be less apparent to the exam-
iner as the patient may not be sufficiently awake
either to complain about it or to follow com-
mands on examination (i.e., to look to the side
or up or down), and some degree of exophoria is
present in most people when they are not com-
pletely awake. However, examining oculocepha-
lic responses by rotating the head usually will
disclose eye movement problems associated
with third nerve compression.
A second key feature of uncal herniation
that is sufficient to cause pupillary dilation is
impaired level of consciousness. This may be
due to the distortion of the ascending arousal
systems as they pass through the midbrain, dis-
tortion of the adjacent diencephalon, or per-
haps stretching of blood vessels perfusing the
midbrain, thus causing parenchymal ischemia.
Nevertheless, the impairment of arousal is so
prominent a sign that in a patient with a uni-
lateral fixed and dilated pupil and normal level
of consciousness, the examiner must look for
another cause of pupillodilation. Pupillary di-
lation from uncal herniation with a preserved
level of consciousness is rare enough to be the
subject of case reports.
46
Hemiparesis may also occur due to com-
pression of the cerebral peduncle by the uncus.
The paresis may be contralateral to the herni-
ation (if the advancing uncus impinges upon the
adjacent cerebral peduncle) or ipsilateral (if the
uncus pushes the midbrain so that the opposite
cerebral peduncle is compressed against the
incisural edge of Kernohan’s notch,
47
but see
48
). Hence, the side of paresis is not helpful in
localizing the lesion, but the side of the en-
larged pupil accurately identifies the side of the
herniation over 90% of the time.
49
An additional problem in many patients with
uncal herniation is compression of the posterior
cerebral artery in the tentorial notch, which may
give rise to infarction in the territory of its dis-
tribution.
50
Often this is overlooked at the time
of the herniation, when the impairment of con-
sciousness may make it impossible to test visual
fields, but emerges as a concern after the crisis is
past when the patient is unable to see on the
side of space opposite the herniation. Bilateral
compression of the posterior cerebral arteries re-
sults in bilateral visual field infarction and corti-
cal blindness (see Patient 3–1, Figure 3–6).
51
Patient 3–1
A 30-year-old woman in the seventh month of preg-
nancy began to develop right frontal headaches.
The headaches became more severe, and toward
the end of the eighth month she sought medical
assistance. An MRI revealed a large right frontal
mass. Her physicians planned to admit her to hos-
pital, perform an elective cesarean section, and
then operate on the tumor. She was admitted to
the hospital the day before the surgery. During the
night she complained of a more severe headache
and rapidly became lethargic and then stuporous.
An emergency CT scan disclosed hemorrhage into
the tumor and transtentorial herniation, and at
craniotomy a right frontal hemorrhagic oligoden-
droglioma was removed, and she rapidly recov-
ered consciousness. Upon awakening she com-
plained that she was unable to see. Examination
revealed complete loss of vision including ability
to appreciate light but with retained pupillary light
reflexes. Repeat MRI scan showed an evolving
infarct involving the occipital lobes bilaterally (see
Figure 3–6). Over the following week she gradu-
ally regained some central vision, after which it
became clear that she had severe prosopagnosia
(difficulty recognizing faces).
52
Many months after
recovery of vision she was able to get around and
read, but she was unable to recognize her own
face in the mirror and could only distinguish be-
tween her husband and her brother by the fact that
her brother was taller.
Central transtentorial herniation is due to
pressure from an expanding mass lesion on the
diencephalon. If the mass effect is medially
located, the displacement may be primarily
downward, in turn pressing downward on the
midbrain, although the mass may also have a
substantial lateral component shifting the dien-
cephalon in the lateral direction.
31
The dien-
cephalon is mainly supplied by small penetrat-
ing endarteries that arise directly from the
Structural Causes of Stupor and Coma
101
vessels of the circle of Willis. Hence, even
small degrees of displacement may stretch and
compress important feeding vessels and re-
duce blood flow. In addition to accounting for
the pathogenesis of coma (due to impairment
of the ascending arousal system at the dience-
phalic level), the ischemia causes local swelling
and eventually infarction, which causes further
edema, thus contributing to gradually progres-
sive displacement of the diencephalon. In se-
vere cases, the pituitary stalk may even become
partially avulsed, causing diabetes insipidus,
and the diencephalon may buckle against the
midbrain. The earliest and most subtle signs
of impending central herniation tend to begin
with compression of the diencephalon.
Less commonly, the midbrain may be forced
downward through the tentorial opening by a
mass lesion impinging upon it from the dorsal
surface. Pressure from this direction produces
the characteristic dorsal midbrain or Parinaud’s
syndrome (loss of upgaze and convergence, re-
tractory nystagmus; see below).
Rostrocaudal deterioration of the brainstem
may occur when the distortion of the brainstem
compromises its vascular supply. Downward
displacement of the midbrain or pons stretches
the medial perforating branches of the basi-
lar artery, which itself is tethered to the circle
of Willis and cannot shift downward (Figure
3–4). Paramedian ischemia may contribute to
loss of consciousness, and postmortem injec-
tion of the basilar artery demonstrates that the
paramedian arteries are at risk of necrosis and
extravasation. The characteristic slit-like hem-
orrhages seen in the area of brainstem dis-
placement postmortem are called Duret hem-
orrhages
53
(Figure 3–7). Such hemorrhages
can be replicated experimentally in animals.
54
It is also possible for the venous drainage of the
brainstem to be compromised by compression
of the great vein of Galen, which runs along the
midline on the dorsal surface of the midbrain.
However, in postmortem series, venous infarc-
tion is a rare contributor to brainstem injury.
55
Tonsillar herniation occurs in cases in which
the pressure gradient across the foramen mag-
num impacts the cerebellar tonsils against the
foramen magnum, closing off the fourth ven-
tricular outflow and compressing the medulla
(Figures 3–7 and 3–8). This may occur quite
suddenly, as in cases of subarachnoid hemor-
rhage, when a large pressure wave drives the
cerebellar tonsils against the foramen magnum,
compressing the caudal medulla. The patient
suddenly stops breathing, and blood pressure
rapidly increases as the vascular reflex pathways
in the lower brainstem attempt to perfuse the
lower medulla against the intense local pressure.
A similar syndrome is sometimes seen when
lumbar puncture is performed on a patient
whose intracranial mass lesion has exhausted
the intracranial compliance.
56
In patients with
sustained tonsillar herniation, the cerebellar
tonsils are typically found to be necrotic due to
their impaction against the unyielding edge
of the foramen magnum. This problem is dis-
cussed further below.
Upward brainstem herniation may also occur
through the tentorial notch in the presence of
a rapidly expanding posterior fossa lesion.
3
The
superior surface of the cerebellar vermis and
the midbrain are pushed upward, compressing
the dorsal mesencephalon as well as the adja-
cent blood vessels and the cerebral aqueduct
(Figure 3–8).
The dorsal midbrain compression results in
impairment of vertical eye movements as well as
consciousness. The pineal gland is typically
Figure 3–6. Bilateral occipital infarction in Patient 3–1.
Hemorrhage into a large frontal lobe tumor caused trans-
tentorial herniation, compressing both posterior cerebral
arteries. The patient underwent emergency craniotomy to
remove the tumor, but when she recovered from surgery
she was cortically blind.
102
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
displaced upward on CT scan.
57
The compres-
sion of the cerebral aqueduct can cause acute
hydrocephalus, and the superior cerebellar ar-
tery may be trapped against the tentorial edge,
resulting in infarction and edema of the superior
cerebellum and increasing the upward pressure.
Clinical Findings in Uncal
Herniation Syndrome
EARLY THIRD NERVE STAGE
The proximity of the dorsal surface of the ocu-
lomotor nerve to the medial edge of the tem-
poral lobe (Figure 3–5) means that the earliest
and most subtle sign of uncal herniation is of-
ten an increase in the diameter of the ipsilat-
eral pupil. The pupil may respond sluggishly
to light, and typically it dilates progressively as
the herniation continues. Early on, there may
be no other impairment of oculomotor func-
tion (i.e., no ptosis or ocular motor signs). Once
the herniation advances to the point where the
function of the brainstem is compromised, signs
of brainstem deterioration may proceed rap-
idly, and the patient may slip from full con-
sciousness to deep coma over a matter of min-
utes (Figure 3–9).
Patient 3–2
A 22-year-old woman was admitted to the emer-
gency room with the complaint of erratic behavior
‘‘since her boyfriend had hit her on the head with a
gun.’’ She was awake but behaved erratically in the
emergency room, and was sent for CT scanning
while a neurology consult was called. The neurol-
ogist found the patient in the x-ray department and
the technician noted that she had initially been
uncooperative, but for the previous 10 minutes she
had lain still while the study was completed.
Figure 3–7. Neuropathology of
herniation due to a large brain
tumor. A large, right hemisphere
brain tumor caused subfalcine
herniation (arrow in A) and
pushed the temporal lobe against
the diencephalon (arrowhead).
Herniation of the uncus caused
hemorrhage into the hippocampus
(double arrowhead). Downward
displacement of the brainstem
caused elongation of the brainstem
and midline Duret hemorrhages
(B). Downward displacement of the
cerebellum impacted the cerebellar
tonsils against the foramen mag-
num, infarcting the tonsillar tissue
(arrow in C).
Structural Causes of Stupor and Coma
103
Immediate examination on the radiology table
showed that breathing was slow and regular and
she was unresponsive except to deep pain, with
localizing movements of the right but not the left
extremities. The right pupil was 8 mm and unre-
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