emergency evaluation of the unresponsive pa-
tient, the Amytal interview may establish the
diagnosis and ‘‘wake the patient up,’’ so that one
may begin more definitive treatment. However,
it also breaks down a major psychologic de-
fense, and should only be done in conjunction
with definitive psychiatric treatment. Hence, it
is necessary to secure emergency psychiatric
consultation, and often the patient must be ad-
mitted to the psychiatric service. The physician
must evaluate thoroughly the patient’s physical
state to rule out coexisting organic disease; psy-
chogenic unresponsiveness often occurs in a
setting of serious medical illness.
A FINAL WORD
This chapter has presented a physiologic ap-
proach to the differential diagnosis and the
emergency management of the stuporous and
comatose patient. The approach is based on the
belief that after a history and a general physical
and neurologic examination, the informed phy-
sician can, with reasonable confidence, place
the patient into one of four major groups of ill-
nesses that cause coma. The specific group into
which the patient is placed directs the rest of the
diagnostic evaluation and treatment. At times,
however, the diagnosis is uncertain even after
the examination is completed, and it is necessary
to defer even the preliminary categorization of
patients until the imaging or metabolic tests are
carried out and the most serious infections or
metabolic abnormalities have been considered.
If there is any suspicion of a mass lesion, im-
mediate imaging is mandatory despite the ab-
sence of focal signs. Conversely, the presence of
hemiplegia or other focal signs does not rule out
metabolic disease, especially hypoglycemia. At
all times during the diagnostic evaluation and
treatment of a patient who is stuporous or co-
matose, the physician must ask him- or herself
whether the diagnosis could possibly be wrong
and whether he or she needs to seek consulta-
tion or undertake other diagnostic or therapeu-
tic measures. Fortunately, with constant atten-
tion to the changing state of consciousness and
a willingness to reconsider the situation minute
by minute, few mistakes should be made.
REFERENCES
1. Laureys S, Pellas F, Van Eeckhout P, et al. The
locked-in syndrome: what is it like to be conscious but
paralyzed and voiceless? Prog Brain Res 2005; 150,
495–511.
2. Wijdicks EF, Bamlet WR, Maramattom BV, et al.
Validation of a new coma scale: the FOUR score. Ann
Neurol 2005; 58, 585–593.
3. Stevens RD, Bhardwaj A. Approach to the comatose
patient. Crit Care Med 2006; 34, 31–41.
4. Yanagawa Y, Sakamoto T, Okada Y, et al. Intubation
without premedication may worsen outcome for un-
consciousness patients with intracranial hemorrhage.
Am J Emerg Med 2005; 23, 182–185.
5. Wadbrook PS. Advances in airway pharmacology.
Emerging trends and evolving controversy. Emerg
Med Clin North Am 2000; 18, 767–788.
6. Reynolds SF, Heffner J. Airway management of the
critically ill patient: rapid-sequence intubation. Chest
2005; 127, 1397–1412.
7. Marik PE, Varon J, Trask T. Management of head
trauma. Chest 2002; 122, 699–711.
8. Roppolo LP, Walters K. Airway management in
neurological emergencies. Neurocrit Care 2004; 1(4),
405–141.
9. Hamill JF, Bedford RF, Weaver DC, et al. Lidocaine
before endotracheal intubation: intravenous or laryn-
gotracheal? Anesthesiology 1981; 55, 578–581.
10. Komatsu R, Nagata O, Kamata K, et al. Intubating
laryngeal mask airway allows tracheal intubation when
the cervical spine is immobilized by a rigid collar. Br J
Anaesth 2004; 3, 655–659.
11. Koerner IP, Brambrink AM. Fiberoptic techniques.
Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2005; 19, 611–
621.
12. Patterson, H. Emergency department intubation of
trauma patients with undiagnosed cervical spine
injury. Emerg Med J 2004; 21, 302–305.
13. Muckart DJ, Bhagwanjee S, van der Merwe R. Spinal
cord injury as a result of endotracheal intubation
in patients with undiagnosed cervical spine fractures.
Anesthesiology 1997; 87, 418–420.
Approach to Management of the Unconscious Patient
327
14. Chung YH, Chao TY, Chiu CT, et al. The cuff-leak test
is a simple tool to verify severe laryngeal edema in
patients undergoing long-term mechanical ventilation.
Crit Care Med 2006; 34, 409–414.
15. Lin CC, Lin CD, Cheng YK, et al. Middle ear effusion
in intensive care unit patients with prolonged endo-
tracheal intubation. Am J Otolaryngol 2006; 27, 109–
111.
16. Shirawi N, Arabi Y. Bench-to-bedside review: early
tracheostomy in critically ill trauma patients. Crit Care
2005; 10, 201–205.
17. Mignini MA, Piacentini E, Dubin A. Peripheral
arterial blood pressure monitoring adequately tracks
central arterial blood pressure in critically ill patients:
an observational study. Crit Care 2006; 10, R43.
18. Mullner M, Urbanek B, Havel C, et al. Vasopressors
for shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 3,
CD003709.
19. Asfar P, Hauser B, Radermacher P, et al. Catechol-
amines and vasopressin during critical illness. Crit
Care Clin 2006; 22, 131–149.
20. Seguin P, Laviolle B, Guinet P, et al. Dopexamine and
norepinephrine versus epinephrine on gastric perfu-
sion in patients with septic shock: a randomized study
[NCT00134212]. Crit Care 2006; 10, R32.
21. Aggarwal M, Khan IA. Hypertensive crisis: hyperten-
sive emergencies and urgencies. Cardiol Clin 2006; 24,
135–146.
22. Moore C, Woollard M. Dextrose 10% or 50% in the
treatment of hypoglycaemia out of hospital? A rando-
mised controlled trial. Emerg Med J 2005; 22, 512–
515.
23. Van den BG, Wilmer A, Hermans G, et al. Intensive
insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med
2006; 354, 449–461.
24. Chen JW, Wasterlain CG. Status epilepticus: patho-
physiology and management in adults. Lancet Neurol
2006; 5, 246–256.
25. Towne AR, Waterhouse EJ, Boggs JG, et al. Preva-
lence of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in comatose
patients. Neurology 2000; 54, 340–345.
26. Claassen J, Mayer SA, Kowalski RG, et al. Detection
of electrographic seizures with continuous EEG mon-
itoring in critically ill patients. Neurology 2004; 62,
1743–1748.
27. Vincent JL, Sakr Y, Sprung CL, et al. Sepsis in
European intensive care units: results of the SOAP
study. Crit Care Med 2006; 34, 344–353.
28. Paul M, Silbiger I, Grozinsky S, et al. Beta lactam
antibiotic monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminogly-
coside antibiotic combination therapy for sepsis. Co-
chrane Database Syst Rev 2006; CD003344.
29. Begg N, Cartwright KA, Cohen J, et al. Consensus
statement on diagnosis, investigation, treatment and
prevention of acute bacterial meningitis in immuno-
competent adults. British Infection Society Working
Party. J Infect 1999; 39, 1–15.
30. van de Beek D, De Gans J, McIntyre P, et al. Steroids
in adults with acute bacterial meningitis: a systematic
review. Lancet Infect Dis 2004; 4, 139–143.
31. Mcilvoy LH. The effect of hypothermia and hyper-
thermia on acute brain injury. AACN Clin Issues
2005; 16, 488–500.
32. Minamisawa H, Smith ML, Siesjo BK. The effect of
mild hyperthermia and hypothermia on brain damage
following 5, 10, and 15 minutes of forebrain ischemia.
Ann Neurol 1990; 28, 26–33.
33. De KJ, Deleu D, Solheid C, et al. Coma as presenting
manifestation of Wernicke’s encephalopathy. J Emerg
Med 1985; 3, 361–363.
34. Bleggi-Torres LF, De Medeiros BC, Ogasawara VSA,
et al. Iatrogenic Wernicke’s encephalopathy in allo-
geneic bone marrow transplantation: a study of eight
cases. Bone Marrow Transplant 1997; 20, 391–395.
35. Omer SM, al Kawi MZ, al Watban J, et al. Acute
Wernicke’s encephalopathy associated with hyperem-
esis gravidarum: magnetic resonance imaging findings.
J Neuroimaging 1995; 5, 251–253.
36. Koguchi K, Nakatsuji Y, Abe K, et al. Wernicke’s en-
cephalopathy after glucose infusion. Neurology 2004;
62, 512.
37. Ries NL, Dart RC. New developments in antidotes.
Med Clin North Am 2005; 89, 1379–1397.
38. Barnett R, Grace M, Boothe P, et al. Flumazenil in
drug overdose: randomized, placebo-controlled study
to assess cost effectiveness. Crit Care Med 1999; 27,
78–81.
39. Bledsoe BE. No more coma cocktails. Using science
to dispel myths & improve patient care. JEMS 2002;
27, 54–60.
40. Clarke SF, Dargan PI, Jones AL. Naloxone in opioid
poisoning: walking the tightrope. Emerg Med J 2005;
22, 612–616.
41. Weinbroum AA, Flaishon R, Sorkine P, et al. A risk-
benefit assessment of flumazenil in the management
of benzodiazepine overdose. Drug Saf 1997; 17, 181–
196.
42. Inouye SK. Delirium in older persons. N Engl J Med
2006; 354, 1157–1165.
43. Bourgeois JA, Koike AK, Simmons JE, et al. Adjunc-
tive valproic acid for delirium and/or agitation on
a consultation-liaison service: a report of six cases.
J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005; 17, 232–238.
44. Krauss B, Zurakowski D. Sedation patterns in pedi-
atric and general community hospital emergency de-
partments. Pediatr Emerg Care 1998; 14, 99–103.
45. Lenart SB, Garrity JA. Eye care for patients receiving
neuromuscular blocking agents or propofol during me-
chanical ventilation. Am J Crit Care 2000; 9, 188–191.
46. Koroloff N, Boots R, Lipman J, et al. A randomised
controlled study of the efficacy of hypromellose and
Lacri-Lube combination versus polyethylene/Cling
wrap to prevent corneal epithelial breakdown in the
semiconscious intensive care patient. Intensive Care
Med 2004; 30, 1122–1126.
47. Piatt Jr JH. Detected and overlooked cervical spine
injury in comatose victims of trauma: report from the
Pennsylvania Trauma Outcomes Study. J Neurosurg
Spine 2006; 5, 210–216.
48. Teasdale G, Knill-Jones R, van der Sande J. Observer
variability in assessing impaired consciousness and
coma. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978; 41, 603–610.
49. Lagares A, Gomez PA, Alen JF, et al. A comparison of
different grading scales for predicting outcome after
subarachnoid haemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien)
2005; 147, 5–16.
50. Diringer MN, Edwards DF. Does modification of the
Innsbruck and the Glasgow coma scales improve their
ability to predict functional outcome? Arch Neurol
1997; 54, 606–611.
328
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
51. Stocchetti N, Maas AI, Chieregato A, et al. Hyper-
ventilation in head injury: a review. Chest 2005; 127,
1812–1827.
52. Diringer MN, Yundt K, Videen TO, et al. No
reduction in cerebral metabolism as a result of early
moderate hyperventilation following severe traumatic
brain injury. J Neurosurg 2000; 92, 7–13.
53. Steiner LA, Balestreri M, Johnston AJ, et al. Predict-
ing the response of intracranial pressure to moderate
hyperventilation. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2005; 147,
477–483.
54. Ng I, Lim J, Wong HB. Effects of head posture on
cerebral hemodynamics: its influences on intracranial
pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral
oxygenation. Neurosurgery 2005; 54, 593–598.
55. Schneider GH, von Helden GH, Franke R, et al.
Influence of body position on jugular venous oxygen
saturation, intracranial pressure and cerebral perfu-
sion pressure. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 1993; 59,
107–112.
56. Ropper AH, O’Rourke D, Kennedy SK. Head posi-
tion, intracranial pressure, and compliance. Neurology
1982; 32, 1288–1291.
57. Videen TO, Zazulia AR, Manno EM, et al. Mannitol
bolus preferentially shrinks non-infarcted brain in
patients with ischemic stroke. Neurology 2001; 57,
2120–2122.
58. Huang SJ, Chang L, Han YY, et al. Efficacy and safety
of hypertonic saline solutions in the treatment of se-
vere head injury. Surg Neurol 2006; 65, 539–546.
59. Vialet R, Albanese J, Thomachot L, et al. Isovolume
hypertonic solutes (sodium chloride or mannitol) in
the treatment of refractory posttraumatic intracranial
hypertension: 2 mL/kg 7.5% saline is more effective
than 2 mL/kg 20% mannitol. Crit Care Med 2003; 31,
1683–1687.
60. Sinha S, Bastin ME, Wardlaw JM, et al. Effects of
dexamethasone on peritumoural oedematous brain: a
DT-MRI study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;
75, 1632–1635.
61. Rabinstein AA. Treatment of cerebral edema. Neu-
rologist 2006; 12, 59–73.
62. Czerwinski AW, Czerwinski AB, Whitsett TL, et al.
Effects of a single, large intravenous injection of dexa-
methasone. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1972; 13, 638–
642.
63. Alberti E, Hartmann A, Schutz HJ, et al. The effect
of large doses of dexamethasone on the cerebrospinal
fluid pressure in patients with supratentorial tumors.
J Neurol 1978; 217, 173–181.
64. De Gans J, van de Beek D. European dexamethasone
AB dexamethasone in adults with bacterial meningitis.
N Engl J Med 2002; 347, 1549–1556.
65. Norris JW. Steroids may have a role in stroke therapy.
Stroke 2004; 35, 228–229.
66. Poungvarin N. Steroids have no role in stroke therapy.
Stroke 2004; 35, 229–230.
67. Roberts I, Yates D, Sandercock P, et al. Effect of
intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in
10008 adults with clinically significant head injury
(MRC CRASH trial): randomised placebo-controlled
trial. Lancet 2004; 364, 1321–1328.
68. Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, et al. Surgical man-
agement of acute subdural hematomas. Neurosurgery
2006; 58, 16–24.
69. Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, et al. Surgical man-
agement of acute epidural hematomas. Neurosurgery
2006; 58, 7–15.
70. Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, et al. Surgical
management of traumatic parenchymal lesions. Neu-
rosurgery 2006; 58, S25-S46.
71. Subramaniam S, Hill MD. Controversies in medical
management of intracerebral hemorrhage. Can J
Neurol Sci 2005; 32(Suppl 2), S13–S21.
72. The Brain Trauma Foundation. The American Asso-
ciation of Neurological Surgeons. The Joint Section on
Neurotrauma and Critical Care. Use of barbiturates
in the control of intracranial hypertension. J Neuro-
trauma 2000; 17, 527–530.
73. Chesnut RM. Management of brain and spine injuries.
Crit Care Clin 2004; 20, 25–55.
74. Bader MK, Arbour R, Palmer S. Refractory increased
intracranial pressure in severe traumatic brain injury:
barbiturate coma and bispectral index monitoring.
AACN Clin Issues 2005; 16, 526–541.
75. Schalen W, Sonesson B, Messeter K, et al. Clinical
outcome and cognitive impairment in patients with
severe head injuries treated with barbiturate coma.
Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1992; 117, 153–159.
76. Cremer OL, Van Dijk GW, van WE, et al. Effect of
intracranial pressure monitoring and targeted inten-
sive care on functional outcome after severe head
injury. Crit Care Med 2005; 33, 2207–2213.
77. Albanese J, Leone M, Alliez JR, et al. Decompressive
craniectomy for severe traumatic brain injury: evalu-
ation of the effects at one year. Crit Care Med 2003;
31, 2535–2538.
78. Subramaniam S, Hill MD. Massive cerebral infarc-
tion. Neurologist 2005; 11, 150–160.
79. Arnold M, Nedeltchev K, Schroth G, et al. Clinical
and radiological predictors of recanalisation and out-
come of 40 patients with acute basilar artery occlusion
treated with intra-arterial thrombolysis. J Neurol
Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75, 857–862.
80. Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, et al. Surgical
management of posterior fossa mass lesions. Neuro-
surgery 2006; 58, S47–S55.
81. Wang CC, Liu A, Zhang JT, et al. Surgical manage-
ment of brain-stem cavernous malformations: report
of 137 cases. Surg Neurol 2003; 59, 444–454.
82. Rabinstein AA, Tisch SH, McClelland RL, et al. Cause
is the main predictor of outcome in patients with pon-
tine hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004; 17, 66–71.
83. Gunnerson KJ, Saul M, He S, et al. Lactate versus
non-lactate metabolic acidosis: a retrospective outcome
evaluation of critically ill patients. Crit Care 2006; 10,
R22.
84. Forsythe SM, Schmidt GA. Sodium bicarbonate for
the treatment of lactic acidosis. Chest 2000; 117,
260–267.
85. Gunnerson KJ, Kellum JA. Acid-base and electrolyte
analysis in critically ill patients: are we ready for the
new millennium? Curr Opin Crit Care 2003; 9, 468–
473.
86. Swenson ER. Metabolic acidosis. Respir Care 2001;
46, 342–353.
87. Clifton J, Leikin JB. Methylene blue. Am J Ther 2003;
10, 289–291.
88. Mokhlesi B, Corbridge T. Toxicology in the critically
ill patient. Clin Chest Med 2003; 24, 689–711.
Approach to Management of the Unconscious Patient
329
89. Bayard M, Farrow J, Tudiver F. Acute methemoglo-
binemia after endoscopy. J Am Board Fam Pract 2004;
17, 227–229.
90. Weaver LK, Hopkins RO, Chan KJ, et al. Hyperbaric
oxygen for acute carbon monoxide poisoning. N Engl J
Med 2002; 347, 1057–1067.
91. Sauer SW, Keim ME. Hydroxocobalamin: improved
public health readiness for cyanide disasters. Ann
Emerg Med 2001; 37, 635–641.
92. Weiss-Guillet EM, Takala J, Jakob SM. Diagnosis and
management of electrolyte emergencies. Best Pract
Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 17, 623–651.
93. Wu AH, McKay C, Broussard LA, et al. National
academy of clinical biochemistry laboratory medicine
practice guidelines: recommendations for the use of
laboratory tests to support poisoned patients who pres-
ent to the emergency department. Clin Chem 2003;
49, 357–379.
94. Critical Care Toxicology: Diagnosis and Management
of the Critically Poisoned Patient, 2005, 1–1690.
95. Position paper: ipecac syrup. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol
2004; 42, 133–143.
96. Vale JA, Kulig K. Position paper: gastric lavage. J
Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42, 933–943.
97. Barceloux D, McGuigan M, Hartigan-Go K. Position
statement: cathartics. American Academy of Clinical
Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres
and Clinical Toxicologists. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997;
35, 743–752.
98. Chyka PA, Seger D, Krenzelok EP, et al. Position
paper: single-dose activated charcoal. Clin Toxicol
(Phila) 2005; 43, 61–87.
99. Tenenbein M. Position statement: whole bowel irri-
gation. American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; Eu-
ropean Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Tox-
icologists. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997; 35, 753–762.
100. Bradberry SM, Vale JA. Poisons. Initial assessment and
management. Clin Med 2003; 107–110.
101. Proudfoot AT, Krenzelok EP, Vale JA. Position paper
on urine alkalinization. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42,
1–26.
102. Megarbane B, Borron SW, Baud FJ. Current
recommendations for treatment of severe toxic
alcohol poisonings. Intensive Care Med 2005; 31,
189–195.
103. Rowden AK, Norvell J, Eldridge DL, Kirk MA.
Updates on acetaminophen toxicity. Med Clin North
Am 2005; 89, 1145–1159.
330
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Chapter
8
Brain Death
DETERMINATION OF BRAIN DEATH
CLINICAL SIGNS OF BRAIN DEATH
Brainstem Function
Confirmatory Laboratory Tests
and Diagnosis
Diagnosis of Brain Death in Profound
Anesthesia or Coma of Undetermined
Etiology
Pitfalls in the Diagnosis of Brain Death
DETERMINATION OF
BRAIN DEATH
Since Mollaret and Goulon
1
first examined the
question in 1959, investigators have tried to es-
tablish criteria that would accurately and un-
equivocally determine that the brain is dead or
about to die no matter what therapeutic mea-
sures one might undertake. Since that time,
several committees and reviewers have sought
to establish appropriate clinical and laboratory
criteria for brain death based on retrospective
analyses. The earliest widely known definition
is that of the 1968 Ad Hoc Committee of the
Harvard Medical School to examine the criteria
of brain death (called, at the time, ‘‘irreversible
coma’’
2
) (Table 8–1). At present, in the United
States the principle that brain death is equiv-
alent to the death of the person is established
under the Uniform Determination of Death
Act.
3
(In fact, all death is brain death. An ar-
tificial heart can keep a patient alive. If all the
organs, save the brain, were artificial, that in-
dividual would still be alive. Conversely, when
the brain is dead, sustaining the other organs
by artificial means is simply preserving a dead
body and not keeping the individual alive. Thus,
although this chapter uses the term brain death,
the term as we use it carries the same import as
death.) Detailed evidence-based guidelines and
practice parameters for the clinical diagnosis
of brain death are available from the American
Academy of Neurology online (http://www.aan
.com).
Three medical considerations emphasize the
importance of the concept of brain death: (1)
transplant programs require the donation of
healthy peripheral organs for success. The early
diagnosis of brain death before the systemic cir-
culation fails allows the salvage of such organs.
However, ethical and legal considerations de-
mand that if one is to declare the brain dead,
the criteria must be clear and unassailable. (2)
Even if there were no transplant programs, the
ability of modern medicine to keep a body func- Dostları ilə paylaş: |