tive markers of awareness. While neuroimag-
ing studies hold the promise of elucidating
underlying differences between VS/PVS and
MCS patients, at present no techniques are
able to identify awareness in such patients
unambiguously.
Owen and colleagues
119
have subsequently
developed a new imaging framework to evalu-
ate volitional responses in VS and MCS pa-
tients that address the ambiguities of the meth-
ods used in the Menon study.
114
Applying
these new methods,
120
they identified unequiv-
ocal neuroimaging evidence of a patient re-
maining in VS at 5 months following a severe
traumatic brain injury being able to follow
commands to imagine various visual scenes. The
commands were associated with activation of
appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex, de-
spite lack of an external motor response. At the
time of examination the patient showed evi-
dence of brief visual fixation, a possible transi-
tional sign for evolution into MCS.
76
Another
examination 11 months later revealed visual
tracking to a mirror, another transitional sign,
but no evidence of object manipulation or be-
havioral manifestations of command following.
Figure 9–9 shows the main result of the study.
The imaging findings demonstrated preser-
vation of cognitive function for this particu-
lar patient that the clinical bedside examina-
tion failed to reveal, and indicated a cognitive
level at least consistent with MCS. It is im-
portant to recognize that command following
is a cardinal feature of MCS that does imply
Figure 9–8. (A) A magnetic resonance image (1.5T) from the same patient illustrated in Figure 9–7C reveals destruction
of the right basal ganglia and thalamus as well as severe damage to most of the cerebral cortex of the right hemisphere.
Additional areas of damage include the left posterior thalamus and posterior parietal cortex with moderately severe
atrophy of the rest of the left hemisphere. Resting fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography measurements of the
patient’s brain demonstrated a widespread and marked reduction in cerebral metabolism to less than 50% of normal
across most brain regions. Several isolated and relatively small regions in the left hemisphere, however, expressed higher
levels of metabolism (yellow color indicates values greater than 55% of normal). Magnetoencephalographic analysis of
responses to bilateral auditory stimulation (C, D) demonstrated a time-locked response in the high-frequency (20 to 50 Hz)
range restricted to the left hemisphere reduced in amplitude, coherence, and duration compared with normal controls.
194
Source localization of the time-varying magnetic field obtained from the averaged response identified sources in the left
(D) but not right (C) temporal lobe, consistent with preservation of a response from Heschl’s gyrus. (From Schiff et al.,
117
with permission.)
368
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
communication. MCS patients may show con-
sistent evidence of command following with
visible motor responses that cannot be used to
establish communication. Neuroimaging stud-
ies in such MCS patients also show preserva-
tion of large-scale cerebral networks (see be-
low). As a result, it is unclear from the methods
used in the Owen study whether or not the
patient’s level of consciousness was consistent
with MCS or a higher level of recovery.
FUNCTIONAL IMAGING OF
MINIMALLY CONSCIOUS STATES
Only a few studies have examined brain activity
in MCS.
121
In five MCS patients,
15
O-PET
identified activation of auditory association
regions in the superior temporal gyrus not seen
in PVS patients.
122
In addition, stronger cor-
relation of the auditory cortical responses with
frontal cortical regions was observed in both
MCS patients and control subjects than in PVS
patients. Median nerve electrical stimulation
activated the entire pain network, similar to the
response in normal subjects
123
(see Figure 9–
6). These findings stress the need for analgesic
medications when MCS patients undergo pain-
ful procedures.
Multimodal imaging studies using functional
MRI activation paradigms and FDG-PET
in two MCS patients near emergence from
MCS uncovered unexpected evidence of widely
Figure 9–9. Command following in posttraumatic brain injury vegetative state (VS) at 5 months. A 23-year-old woman
with clinical examination consistent with VS, with the exception of brief periods of visual fixation, following severe
traumatic brain injury was asked to imagine playing tennis or walking throughout her own house. The regionally selective
brain activation patterns obtained from functional magnetic resonance imaging measurements for each condition were
identical to those of normal controls. (From Owen et al.,
120
with permission.)
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
369
preserved large-scale cerebral network re-
sponses
121
(Figure 9–10). Both patients suf-
fered sudden brain injuries (blunt trauma,
spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage) leaving
them in MCS for longer than 18 months. The
acute phase of injury of each patient included
herniation to a midbrain level. This historical
feature is commonly associated with MCS and
other poor outcomes following traumatic brain
injuries as a result of focal infarction or indirect
(axonal shearing, ischemic) damage.
124
Neither
patient demonstrated consistent command fol-
lowing or functional communication (either ges-
tural or verbal) on repeated examinations. Both
patients, however, did demonstrate best re-
sponses that included command following or
occasional verbal output (single words).
Significant fluctuations in their responsive-
ness occurred across examinations. Figure
9–10 shows cortical activity for one patient and
one normal control associated with receptive
language comprehension during presentation
of 40-second narratives prerecorded by a fa-
miliar relative, presented as normal speech, and
also played as time reversed (backward). Brain
activations in response to normal speech are
shown in yellow. Selective responses to back-
ward presentations are shown in blue. Normal
speech generated robust activity in language-
related areas of the superior and middle tem-
poral gyri for both the control subject and the
MCS patient. In addition, the normal speech
stimuli produced brain activations in the MCS
patient’s brain in the inferior and middle frontal
Figure 9–10. Functional mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI)
maps obtained during listening to
spoken narratives, in a minimally
conscious state patient (left) and
control subject (right) measured
by functional MRI. Yellow color
indicates response to spoken
narratives, blue color indicates
response to time-reversed narra-
tives, and red color indicates
regions of overlapping response to
both conditions. See text for de-
tails of paradigm. (Adapted from
Schiff et al.,
121
with permission.)
370
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
gyri, primary and secondary visual areas includ-
ing the calcarine sulcus, and precuneus. The
pattern of brain activations for normal speech
in this patient overlapped with that in the
normal controls. However, different from the
normals, neither patient activated in response to
reversed speech. The findings also indicate
that the functional MRI technique alone is in-
sufficient to characterize the presumably wide
differences in brain function that separate the
patients and the control subjects. In addition,
unlike PVS patients who fail to produce acti-
vation of polymodal association cortices in re-
sponse to natural stimuli, the two MCS pa-
tients retain potentially recruitable cerebral
networks that underlie language comprehen-
sion and expression despite their inability to
execute motor commands or communicate re-
liably. The preservation of large-scale fore-
brain networks associated with higher cogni-
tive functions such as language provides a
clinical foundation for wide fluctuations some-
times observed in MCS patients. Other inves-
tigators have obtained similar neuroimaging
findings from single MCS patients.
99,125
The same limitations of imaging techniques
for determining awareness in VS/PVS patients
also limit assessment in MCS patients. One can-
not determine whether or not the functional
MRI activations indicate awareness without
communication, and by definition these patients
cannot communicate. In addition, when they
do awaken, they typically are amnestic for this
period of time. Neuroimaging studies of visual
Figure 9–11. Diffusion tensor imaging studies of a patient with late recovery (19 years) from the minimally conscious
state. (A) Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrating diffuse atrophy. (B) Fractional anisotropy maps showing fiber tracks:
red, fibers with left-right directionality; blue, fibers with up-down directionality; green, fibers with anterior-posterior
directionality. Images show volume loss of the corpus callosum throughout the medial component and regions in parieto-
occipital white matter with prominent left-right directionality. (C) Fractional anisotropy maps obtained 18 months after
studies shown in (B) demonstrate reduction of left-right direction in parieto-occipital regions with increased anisotropy
noted in the midline cerebellum (see text). (D) Quantitative comparison of midline cerebellum fractional anisotropy versus
left-right directionality. Open circle, values obtained from patient’s first scan; open square, values obtained from second
scan; filled circles, values from 20 normal subjects. (From Voss et al.,
132
with permission.)
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
371
awareness in patients and normal subjects im-
plicate certain patterns of coactivation across
cortical networks as the principal correlates of
awareness, including coactivation of prefrontal
and parietal cortices along with the occipital-
temporal cortex.
126
Although the activation
patterns identified in the MCS patient shown
in Figure 9–10 include several of these specific
regions, the patient is unable to communi-
cate reliably to indicate whether visual or self-
reflective awareness is present. The coactiva-
tion of prefrontal, parietal, and occipital regions
suggests awareness but is potentially consis-
tentwithotherinterpretations.Similarconcerns
arise in the interpretation of the Owen
120
find-
ings shown in Figure 9–9.
In the future, functional brain imaging tech-
niques in combination with electrodiagnostics
may identify patients with rehabilitative po-
tential, and conversely, those in whom further
recovery is not expected. The introduction of
the MCS nosologic category is aimed at direct-
ing efforts to identify patients who may have
some substrate for further recovery despite
very limited behavioral evidence of awareness.
On the other hand, fragmentary cortical net-
works may remain in VS patients without her-
alding further recovery or signifying aware-
ness. The ‘‘gray zone’’ between VS and the
lower functional boundary of MCS in Figure
9–1 reflects a probable overlap region where
patients may acquire a reliable sensory-motor
loop response of very limited cerebral systems
that, despite contingency with environmental
stimuli, may not reflect awareness or poten-
tial for further recovery. It is critical, then, to
identify residual capacity as opposed to isolated
functional activity in the cortex. This will re-
quire prospective studies of large numbers of
patients with early VS, to determine if there are
indices on functional imaging that can predict
eventual improvement.
POTENTIAL MECHANISMS
UNDERLYING RESIDUAL
FUNCTIONAL CAPACITY IN
SEVERELY DISABLED PATIENTS
The neuroimaging studies reviewed above
raise the question of what mechanisms might
limit further recovery in MCS patients who
harbor widely connected and responsive cere-
bral networks. Fluctuations of cognitive func-
tion in MCS patients
91,127
(and occasional late
spontaneous emergence from MCS [see be-
low]) demonstrate an underlying residual cog-
nitive capacity in some severely injured brains.
At present, no studies have addressed this
question by systematically correlating brain
structural integrity, cerebral metabolism, and
electrophysiology across a large sample of pa-
tients with severe disability. Nonetheless, sev-
eral careful observations of variations in struc-
tural injury patterns, patterns of normal resting
metabolic activity, and abnormal brain dynam-
ics provide potentially important clues and di-
rections for future research.
Variations of Structural Substrates
Underlying Severe Disability
Clinical observations and quantitative mea-
surements of neuronal loss following complex
brain injuries do not support an invariably
straightforward relationship of recovery of cog-
nitive function that is simply graded by the
degree of vascular, diffuse axonal, and direct
ischemic brain damage. Although indirectly
measured volumetric indices do offer some
prediction of long-term outcome in PVS fol-
lowing overwhelming traumatic
71
or anoxic
brain injury,
38
pathologic studies comparing
patients remaining severely disabled following
brain injuries to those remaining in VS dem-
onstrate that severely disabled and some MCS
patients may have only focal brain damage,
whereas PVS patients suffer diffuse axonal in-
jury.
128
Severely disabled patients with diffuse
axonal injury appeared to have lesser quanti-
tative damage than PVS patients. These find-
ings suggest that significant variations in un-
derlying mechanisms of cognitive disabilities
and residual brain function accompany MCS
and other severe but less disabling brain
injuries.
It is also well known that enduring global
disorders of consciousness can arise in the
setting of only focal injuries.
129
These injuries
are typically concentrated in the rostral teg-
mental mesencephalon and paramedian thal-
amus.
112,130
Patients with moderate, diffuse
axonal injury combined with limited focal dam-
age to these paramedian structures have not
been systematically studied, but this pathology
372
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
probably plays an important role in causing
severe disability.
128,131
The paramedian tha-
lamic and upper brainstem structures are
specifically vulnerable to injury during periods
of acute cerebral edema produced by trau-
matic brain injuries, infarctions, hemorrhages,
infections, and brain tumors, as reviewed in
Chapters 3 and 4.
Recent studies suggest that slowly develop-
ing structural remodeling may be a potential
source of late recovery following severe brain
injury. Voss and associates
132
longitudinally
characterized brain structural connectivity and
resting metabolism in a 40-year-old man who
recovered expressive and receptive language
after remaining in MCS for 19 years after a
traumatic brain injury. The patient continued
to improve over the next 2 years. MRI revealed
extensive cerebral and subcortical atrophy par-
ticularly affecting the brainstem and frontal
lobes; there was marked volume loss through-
out the brain with ventricular dilation (Figure
9–11A). Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data
revealed severe diffuse axonal injury, as indi-
cated by volume loss in the medial corpus
callosum (Figure 9–11B, C). In contrast to the
overall severe reduction of brain connectivity
demonstrated by DTI fractional anisotropy
maps, measurements also revealed large re-
gions of increased connectivity in posterior
brain white matter not seen in 20 normal sub-
jects (Figure 9–11B). These large, bilateral
regions of posterior white matter anisotropy
were reduced in directionality when mea-
sured in a second DTI study 18 months later
(Figure 9–11C). At this time, repeat imaging
identified significant increases in anisotropy
within the midline cerebellar white matter that
correlated with significant clinical improve-
ments in motor control over the intervening
time period.
132
Figure 9–11D shows the quan-
titative changes in an index of fractional an-
isotropy and left-right fiber directions; the
open circle shows measurements at the time
of the first scan (Figure 9–11B), and the open
square shows the marked increase in frac-
tional anisotropy corresponding to the in-
creased intensity of the red region within the
midline cerebellum (Figure 9–11C). These
findings suggest the possibility of structural
changes within the patients’ white matter play-
ing a role in their functional recovery. Recent
experimental studies provide some support
for such a mechanism of late remodeling of
white matter connections after structural in-
juries
133,134
and in normal human adults.
135
Although suggestive and fascinating, indi-
vidual case studies of this sort must be inter-
preted cautiously. Nevertheless, such findings
indicate the need for larger prospective studies
examining whether slow structural changes do
arise in the setting of severe traumatic brain
injuries and, if present, whether they influence
functional outcomes.
The Potential Role of the
Metabolic ‘‘Baseline’’ in
Recovery of Cognitive Function
As discussed on page 370 and illustrated in
the example shown in Figure 9–10, the ab-
normal response to speech reversal in some
MCS patients provides a potentially impor-
tant clue to the mechanisms underlying their
profound cognitive impairment. Control sub-
jects were instructed to listen passively to the
sounds; however, the time-reversed narratives
elicited an involuntary attempt to decode the
speech. The failure of the time-reversed nar-
ratives to activate the large-scale language-
responsive networks identified by the forward
presentations in MCS patients suggests a sig-
nificant difference in the resting state of the
brain in MCS patients and control subjects.
The recruitment of a normal network activa-
tion pattern suggests that MCS patients may
require very salient stimuli to activate these
language systems (e.g., clear human speech, fa-
miliar voice, emotional content, etc.).
Raichle and colleagues have proposed
that the normal human brain has a ‘‘baseline’’
state of metabolic activation (as reflected
by oxygen uptake) reflecting ‘‘default self-
monitoring.’’
136–138
Specific areas of brain that
are active at rest (e.g., posterior cingulate cor-
tex and ventral anterior cingulate cortex
139
)
form a network that deactivates during tasks
that activate other areas of the brain. Data
obtained from these investigators provide
some evidence supporting a functional role of
a resting state of monitoring environmental
factors and an internal state that might be
sensitive to salient events such as emotionally
meaningful human speech.
138–141
Loss of sig-
nal in these regions is a common finding in
VS and partial recovery of this metabolic signal
is seen in MCS.
141,99
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
373
The very low overall resting cerebral met-
abolic rates in MCS patients generally in-
clude the posterior and ventroanterior cingu-
late regions associated by Raichle with self-
awareness. This may account for the failure to
engage functional network activation with pre-
sentation of time-reversed narratives (Figure
9–10). Specifically, a lack of a metabolically ex-
pensive ongoing self and environmental mon-
itoring process may leave the MCS brain stim-
ulus bound and limited to activations provoked
by extremely salient events. This interpretation
is supported by direct comparisons of changes
in cerebral metabolism, functional MRI signal
activation, and neuronal activity that indicate
a linear correlation of these measures.
142,143
The dissociation of low resting cerebral me-
tabolism and recruitable cerebral networks in
MCS invites speculation that patients who re-
main near the border of emergence from MCS
(see red line in Figure 9–1) may show fluctu-
ation of recruitment of these large-scale net-
works under varying internal conditions of
arousal and appearance of environmentally sa-
lient stimuli, leading to the occasional surpris-
ingly high level of response.
A further consideration is whether injuries
incurred by compression of the thalamus and
brainstem during acute herniation may un-
derlie the chronically low metabolic rates in
patients remaining in MCS despite connected Dostları ilə paylaş: |