Physical examination was notable for waxy flexi-
bility as well as rigidity, and spontaneous move-
ments were minimal and limited to the left upper
extremity.
EEG showed periods of frontal intermittent rhy-
thmic delta activity and mild generalized slowing.
An HmPAO single photon emission computed to-
mography (SPECT) scan revealed diffuse profound
frontal bihemispheric hypoperfusion (left greater
than right, see Figure 9–5C). The patient’s clinical
state did not improve prior to death from a systemic
infection.
Figure 9–5. Akinetic mutism seen in Patient 9–2. (A) Computed tomography scan demonstrating large mesencephalic
mass with surrounding edema. (B) Series of magnetic resonance axial images following treatment with steroids and
reduction of mesencephalic lesion. Middle image shows high-signal abnormalities in the ventral midbrain. (C) Single
photon emission tomography imaging demonstrates diffuse cerebral hypoperfusion with relative sparing of cerebellar
blood flow. (Images courtesy of Drs. Ayeesha Kamal and N. Schiff.)
362
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Autopsy of brain was normal except for the mid-
brain, hypothalamus, and left paramedian thala-
mus, which showed infiltration of lymphoma cells
and necrosis in the midline of the midbrain ex-
tending rostrally into the left thalamus to involve
the intralaminar nuclei and surrounding tissue.
Late Recoveries From the
Minimally Conscious State
Word-of-mouth stories and news reports some-
times claim dramatic recovery from prolonged
coma or VS. Invariably, these reports generate
wide public interest and much confusion con-
cerning the difference between coma and VS,
as well as between diagnosis and prognosis.
The Multisociety Task Force
64,65
examined 14
cases from the media and found that the ma-
jority of these ‘‘late’’ recoveries from VS fell
within their guidelines (i.e., less than 3 months
following an anoxic injury or 12 months fol-
lowing a traumatic brain injury in an adult).
Nonetheless, as noted above, a few rare, well-
documented late recoveries underscore the
statistical nature of the guidelines for prognosis
of permanent VS. However, most reports of
late recovery from ‘‘coma’’ involve very late
transition of MCS patients to emergence (see
page 373). There are no data to allow guide-
lines for the expected duration of MCS. Some
MCS patients harbor significant residual ca-
pacities as demonstrated by wide fluctuation of
cognitive function.
91
The term minimally con-
scious state seems most appropriate; alterna-
tives include minimal responsive state and
minimal awareness state.
92
Minimal respon-
siveness as assessed at the bedside may belie
considerable cognitive capacities without fur-
ther evaluation of etiologic mechanisms, in-
cluding normal cognitive function as present in
the locked-in state, discussed below.
LOCKED-IN STATE
A related and important issue is late recovery
of consciousness in patients with severe motor
and sensory impairment leading to the locked-
in or partial locked-in state (condition with
severe motor disability approximating the tra-
ditional definition). The locked-in state is not
a disorder of consciousness, as reviewed in
Chapter 1. Nonetheless, because most cases of
the locked-in state are due to a pontine injury,
it is common for patients to experience an ini-
tial coma (see
93
for an example) or to respond
inconsistently during the initial period of the
injury similar to MCS. In a survey of 44 locked-
in patients, the mean time of diagnosis was 2.5
months after onset; in more than one-half of
these cases, a family member and not a physi-
cian first recognized the condition.
94
Further-
more, investigators working with locked-in
patients often report early counseling of with-
drawal of care either because of an incorrect
diagnosis or based on physician attitudes
without a careful and vetted informed consent
process that includes a review of the available
information on quality of life obtained from
surveys of patients in this condition.
94,95
While
it is quite reasonable to doubt that most people
would want to trade a normal existence for that
of a locked-in patient, the important question
is whether a locked-in patient would rather
live or die. Quality-of-life assessments admin-
istered to locked-in patients provide a source
of information for patients and families as
do written first-person accounts, several of
which have become well known.
96
Doble and
colleagues
95
reported on 5-, 10-, and 20-year
survival (83%, 83%, and 40%, respectively) and
quality of life in 29 patients. Among several
notable findings, these investigators found that
12 patients remained living 11 years after the
study onset; seven of these patients described
‘‘satisfaction with life,’’ five were noted to ex-
hibit occasional depressive symptoms, but none
held a DNR order. Leon-Carrion and associ-
ates
94
described quality-of-life measures in
more detail in their survey of 44 locked-in pa-
tients (Table 9–13). The majority of these pa-
tients (86%) described a good capacity to
maintain attention, nearly half (47%) described
their mood as ‘‘good,’’ most (81%) met with
friends at least twice a month, and 30% could
maintain sexual relations (Table 9–13).
Quality of life was also assessed in 17 chronic
(i.e., more than 1 year) locked-in patients who
used eye movements or blinking as a princi-
pal mode of communication, lived at home,
and had a mean duration of locked-in state of
6 years (range 2 to 16 years).
97,98
Self-scored
perception of mental health (evaluating mental
well-being and psychologic distress) and per-
sonal general health were not significantly
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
363
lower than values from age-matched French
control subjects. Importantly, perception of
mental health and the presence of physical
pain correlated with the frequency of suicidal
thoughts (r ¼ –0.67 and 0.56, respectively,
p < 0.05), indicating the importance of proper
pain management in chronic locked-in patients
who are frequently undertreated. At present,
there are three European societies for locked-
in-patients with a membership exceeding 300
persons (http://alis-asso.fr/).
MECHANISMS UNDERLYING
OUTCOMES OF SEVERE BRAIN
INJURY: NEUROIMAGING
STUDIES AND CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORKS
The above discussion details the problems of
diagnostic accuracy and prognosis for disorders
of consciousness. At present, careful clinical
evaluations combined in some instances with
structural imaging criteria, or measurements
of early cortical sensory responses, remain
the foundation for decision making. Available
guidelines invariably indicate likelihoods of
death or VS as outcomes rather than providing
reliable indices of potential for functional re-
coveries with or without persistent disabilities.
In large part this is a consequence of the fact
that preserved brainstem function may only
herald PVS. Moreover, it is clear that in the
aggregate, the clinical neurologic examination
and assessments of structural brain integrity
provide only limited insight into the neuro-
physiologic mechanisms of coma, VS, or MCS.
This is because the functional impairment of
distributed neuronal populations of the cere-
bral cortex, basal ganglia, and thalamus under-
lying the conditions often cannot be adequately
assessed by these methods. Neuroimaging
techniques that can directly assess functional
changes within these cerebral networks hold
significant promise to ultimately improve diag-
nostic accuracy and understanding of the path-
ophysiology of the severely injured brain (see
99
for review).
Expanded use of neuroimaging techniques
for evaluating functional outcomes of patients
recovering from coma will likely have the
greatest impact on the category of severe dis-
ability. This broad category includes within its
limits patients who, while not permanently
unconscious, as in the chronic VS, may none-
theless never regain a capacity to communicate,
as well as other patients near the functional bor-
derline of independence in activities of daily
living. More than 20 years ago, the third edition
of Stupor and Coma commented that the overly
broad definition of severe disability needed sig-
Table 9–13 Functional Measurements
in a Cohort of Locked-in Patients
(N ¼ 44)
Variable
%
Cognitive Functioning
Level of attention
Good
86.0
Tends to sleep
9.0
Normally awake
2.3
Sleeps most of the time
2.3
Can pay attention >15 minutes
95.3
Can watch and follow a
film on TV
95.3
Can say what day it is
97.6
Can read
76.7
Has a visual deficit
14.0
Has memory problems
18.6
Emotions and Feelings
Mood state
Good
47.5
Bad
5.0
Depressed
12.5
Other
35.0
Is more sensitive since onset
85.0
Laughs or cries more easily
87.8
Sexuality
Has sexual desire
61.1
Can maintain sexual relations
30.0
Communication
Can emit sounds
78.0
Can communicate with or without
technical aid
65.8
Social Activities
Enjoys going out
73.2
Participates in social activities
14.3
Watches television normally
23.8
Participates in other family activities
61.9
Is accompanied out once or
twice a week
61.9
Meets with friends at least twice a
month
81.0
364
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
nificant refinement. As discussed above, recent
efforts to define MCS are a step in this di-
rection. The significance of identifying the
physiologic mechanisms underlying different
functional outcomes within the category of
severe disability is that this knowledge will lead
to a better understanding of the necessary and
sufficient neurologic substrates to recover con-
sciousness and varying levels of cognitive capac-
ity. Just as the concept of brain death clarified
the concept of death, MCS and other future
subdivisions of the category of severe disability
will force us to consider the concept of con-
sciousness more precisely.
FUNCTIONAL IMAGING OF THE
PERSISTENT VEGETATIVE STATE
Levy and associates
100
provided the first exper-
imental evidence supporting the clinical hypo-
thesis that patients in VS were unconscious.
Using FDG-PET, seven patients in PVS were
compared to three patients in the locked-in
state and 18 normal subjects. In PVS patients,
cerebral metabolic rates were globally reduced
by 50% or more. Regional cerebral blood flow
measurements showed a similar but more vari-
able pattern of global reduction. Subsequent
studies have confirmed these findings, with an
average of less than 50% of normal metabo-
lic rates in most VS patients studied (reduced
further to 30% to 40% in cases of hypoxic-
ischemic etiology).
101–105
Comparable reduc-
tions are identified during generalized anes-
thesia
106,107
and in stage IV sleep in normal
individuals.
108
The small number of patients in
the locked-in state (three) in the Levy study
had a low average metabolic rate, but recent
quantitative FDG-PET studies have demon-
strated essentially normal resting metabolic
rates in the cerebrum, even acutely.
99
Cerebel-
lar metabolic rates were low, consistent with the
lack of motor outflow in the locked-in state.
98
More sensitive imaging techniques have
recently been applied to the evaluation of PVS
patients. They reveal a marked loss of distrib-
uted network processing in VS.
99,104,109
Ele-
mentary auditory and somatosensory stimuli
fail to produce brain activation outside of pri-
mary sensory cortices (Figure 9–6). The data
suggest multiple functional disconnections
along the auditory or somatosensory cortical
pathways and support the inference that the
residual cortical activity seen in PVS patients
does not reflect awareness. The findings are
consistent with evidence of early sensory pro-
cessing in PVS patients as measured by evoked
potential studies, but loss of later compo-
nents
39
; they suggest that VS/PVS correlates
with failure of sensory information to propa-
gate beyond the earliest stages of cortical
processing. Preliminary studies discussed be-
low indicate that MCS patients show wider
activation of cortical networks, findings that
may help ultimately distinguish the conditions
among patients with severe sensory and motor
impairments limiting behavioral assessments
(e.g., spastic contractions and blindness).
Atypical Behavioral Features in
the Persistent Vegetative State
Stereotyped behavior, typically limbic displays
of crying, smiling, or other emotional patterns
that are not related to environmental stimuli,
occur in some VS patients. Occasionally, other
fragments of behavior that may appear semi-
purposeful, or inconsistently related to envi-
ronmental stimuli, arise in VS/PVS patients.
Neuroimaging studies, including FDG-PET,
magnetoencephalography (MEG), and func-
tional MRI (fMRI), have identified residual
cerebral circuits underlying such isolated be-
havioral fragments.
105,110,117
One remarkable
patient studied had remained in the PVS for 20
years but infrequently expressed single words
(typically epithets) not related to environ-
mental stimulation (Figure 9–7C). Two other
patients in this group revealed similar isolated
metabolic activity that could be correlated with
unusual behavioral patterns.
105
These data
provide novel evidence for the modular orga-
nization of the brain and suggest that preser-
vation of residual cerebral activity following
severe brain injuries is not random. Regional
preservation of cerebral metabolic activity
likely reflects both preservation of anatomic
connectivity and endogenous neuronal firing
patterns of remnant but incomplete networks.
Further study of this patient showed that
islands of higher resting brain metabolism in-
cluded Heschl’s gyrus (Figure 9–8), Broca’s
area, Wernicke’s area, and the left anterior
basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, possibly puta-
men). Despite limited amounts of remaining
left thalamus identified by MRI that expressed
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
365
a very low metabolic rate, incompletely pre-
served MEG patterns of spontaneous and
evoked gamma-band responses were seen.
Taken together, these imaging data suggest the
modular sparing of cortical networks associ-
ated with language functions.
117
Nevertheless,
despite this patient, any verbal output suggests
function better than vegetative until proved
otherwise.
Another patient, a 26-year-old man, re-
mained in a behaviorally unremarkable VS for
6 years following a motor vehicle accident
(Figure 9–8A). MRI T1 images revealed bilat-
eral paramedian thalamic injury, severe bilat-
eral infarction of the tegmental mesencepha-
lon, and diffuse white matter injury. However,
nearly normal cerebral cortical metabolism was
measured by quantitative FDG-PET in the
brain. EEG showed diffuse low-voltage, low-
frequency activity that did not change with
arousal patterns correlating with the marked
loss of metabolic signal in the paramedian mes-
encephalon and thalami. Isolated damage to the
paramedianthalamusandmesencephalonalone
may cause PVS,
112,113
so that in this patient, the
preserved cortical metabolism may reflect mul-
tiple preserved but isolated networks that fail
to integrate because of the overwhelming in-
jury to the paramedian mesencephalon and
thalamus.
105
Neuroimaging of Isolated Cortical
Responses in Persistent Vegetative
State Patients
In a widely discussed Lancet paper, Menon
and colleagues
114
described selective cortical
activation patterns using a
15
O-PET subtrac-
tion paradigm in a 26-year-old woman de-
scribed as being in PVS 4 months following
an attack of ADEM. MRI studies of the pa-
tient’s brain showed evidence of both diffuse
cortical and subcortical (brainstem and tha-
lamic) lesions. Although the patient inconsis-
tently demonstrated visual tracking (leading to
some debate as to whether her condition at the
Figure 9–6. Somatosensory stimulation in the vegetative state. Top row: Brain activation patterns from normal subjects,
shown in red, that were elicited by noxious stimulation (super-threshold electrical stimulation experienced as ‘‘painful’’;
subtraction stimulation-rest). Bottom row: Brain activation patterns from the persistent vegetative state (PVS), again
shown in red, that were elicited by same noxious stimulation method (subtraction stimulation-rest). Blue regions indicate
areal differences in network activation showing region less active in patients than in controls (interaction [stimulation vs.
rest] Â [patient vs. control]). All regions of activation are projected onto transverse sections of a normalized brain mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) template in controls and on the mean MRI of the patients (distances are relative to the
bicommissural plane). (From Laureys et al.,
109
with permission.)
366
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
time of study reflected PVS or MCS), no other
features of her examination were inconsistent
with the diagnosis of VS. Improvements in re-
sponsiveness unequivocally consistent with the
MCS level were noted by 6 months, with emer-
gence from MCS occurring some time after 8
months. As noted above, it is now generally
recognized that prognosis in ADEM includes
later recoveries at time periods 6 months or
longer after the injury. Thus, patients with
ADEM may harbor residual integrative capa-
cities despite a long convalescence. By con-
trast, similar clinical examination findings in
a patient 6 months following cardiac arrest
would not portend such a cerebral reserve.
The patient eventually made a full cognitive
recovery.
115
Imaging studies in this patient at 4
months, when described as being in PVS, dem-
onstrated selective activations of right occipital-
temporal regions (in a subtraction paradigm
comparing familiar faces and scrambled im-
ages). The investigators interpreted activa-
tion of the right fusiform gyrus and extrastriate
visual association areas as indicating a recov-
ery of minimal awareness without behavioral
manifestation. The findings in this patient,
however, point out a significant limitation of
brain imaging techniques in this clinical context
and have been extensively debated.
111,116
The selective identification of relatively com-
plex information processing associated with vi-
sual processing of faces as shown here may not
alone provide an index of recovery of cogni-
tive function or even potential for recovery.
Specific cortical responses to faces are obtain-
able in anesthetized animals
118
and, if found
in isolation of any other imaging evidence or
bedside demonstration of awareness, do not
guarantee that these patterns of activation
represent cognitive function per se. Without
Figure 9–7. An overview of coregistered magnetic resonance imaging and fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission to-
mography (FDG-PET) images in five chronic persistent vegetative state (PVS) patients.
105
The PET data are normalized
by region and expressed on a color scale ranging from 35% to 100% of normal. The brackets segregate three patients who
suffered focal brain injuries due to trauma (A, B) or deep brain hemorrhage (C), and two patients in PVS due to anoxic
injuries (D, E). As seen in the marked difference in overall brain metabolism, patients in PVS following anoxic injuries
demonstrate global reductions of cerebral metabolism in all brain regions. Patient C is a 49-year-old woman who suffered
successive hemorrhages from a deep, central arteriovenous malformation of her brain. Despite a 20-year period of PVS,
this patient infrequently expressed isolated words (typically epithets) not related to environmental stimulation. (From
Schiff, et al.,
105
with permission.)
Consciousness, Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes, and Ethical Considerations
367
further clinical evidence, the present state of
imaging technologies cannot provide alterna- Dostları ilə paylaş: |