are insonated on both sides through the tem-
poral bone above the zygomatic arch (of note,
up to 10% of patients may not have temporal in-
sonation windows, limiting use of this method)
and the vertebral arteries or basilar artery
through a suboccipital transcranial window.
Two types of abnormalities have been corre-
lated with brain death: (1) an absence of dia-
stolic or reverberating flow, indicating the loss
of arterial contractive force, and (2) the ap-
pearance of small systolic peaks early in sys-
tole, indicative of high vascular resistance.
Both abnormalities are associated with signif-
icant elevations of ICP. The technique is lim-
ited by the requirement of skill in the opera-
tion of the equipment and has a potentially
high error rate for missing blood flow because
of incorrect placement of the transducer. Re-
cent studies report a sensitivity of 77% and a
specificity of 100% of diagnosing brain death if
both the middle cerebral arteries and the
basilar artery were insonated; sensitivity im-
proved with increasing time of evaluation fol-
lowing initial clinical diagnosis.
24
Cerebral scintigraphy measures the failure
of uptake of the radioisotope nuclide techne-
tium (Tc) 99m hexametazime in brain paren-
chyma. This technique has shown good corre-
lation with cerebral angiography. The test can
be done at the bedside using a portable gamma
camera after injection of isotope, which should
be used within 30 minutes after its reconsti-
tution. A static image of 500,000 counts ob-
tained at several time points is recommended
(taken immediately, 30 to 60 minutes after in-
jection, and at 2 hours past injection time
25
). A
recent prospective study using 99m Tc-hex-
amethyl-propylamineoxime (HMPAO) single
photon emission tomography (SPECT) in 50
comatose and brain-dead patients to examine
cerebral perfusion found the characteristic
‘‘empty skull’’ image indicating arrest of cere-
bral perfusion in 45 of 47 brain-dead pa-
tients.
26
The bedside nuclide brain scan test is
probably the best adjunct test to confirm the
diagnosis in unclear cases. It is inexpensive,
can be done without moving a patient on a ven-
tilator, and is extremely reliable when it shows
an empty skull (see Figure 8–1). This test can
be considered a gold standard for use in diffi-
cult cases.
336
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY/
EVOKED POTENTIAL MEASUREMENTS
The EEG has little place in the determination of
brain death, except perhaps in those rare cases
where other clinical evidence is equivocal. An
isoelectric EEG, often termed electrocerebral
inactivity by electroencephalographers that lasts
for a period of 6 to 12 hours in a patient who is
not hypothermic and has not ingested or been
given depressant drugs, identifies forebrain
death (because the EEG does not demonstrate
brainstem activity, it can be isoelectric in pa-
tients with brainstem reflexes who are clearly
not brain dead). Silverman and associates re-
ported on a survey of 2,650 isoelectric EEGs
that lasted up to 24 hours.
27
Only three patients
in this group, each in coma caused by overdose
of central nervous system depressant drugs,
recovered cerebral function. However, Heck-
mann and colleagues
28
have reported a patient
with an isoelectric EEG following cardiac arrest
who showed residual brainstem function, in-
cluding spontaneous breathing and SPECT
evidence of cerebral blood flow, for 7 weeks
prior to death.
Electrical interference makes artifact-free
EEG or evoked potential records exceedingly
difficult to obtain in the intensive care setting.
Moreover, technical recording errors can sim-
ulate electrocerebral activity as well as electro-
cerebral inactivity and several ostensibly iso-
electric tracings must be discarded because
of faulty technique. A national cooperative
group has published technical requirements
necessary to establish electrocerebral silence
(Table 8–5), and has produced an atlas illus-
trating potential problems of interpretation
of the EEG in coma.
29
It should be noted that
the EEG is not infallible, even with anoxic-
ischemic injury. Cerebral activity may be ab-
sent on the EEG for up to several hours fol-
lowing cardiac arrest, only to return later.
30
A prolonged vegetative existence is occasion-
ally possible in such cases despite the pres-
ence of an initially silent EEG. After de-
pressive drug poisoning, total loss of cerebral
hemispheric function and electrocerebral si-
lence have been observed for as long as 50
hours with full clinical recovery.
Physicians have appropriately raised ques-
tions as to whether a few fragments of cerebral
electrical activity mean anything when they
arise from a body that has totally lost all capac-
ity for the brain to regulate internal and ex-
ternal homeostasis. Death is a process in which
different organs and parts of organs lose their
living properties at widely varying rates. Death
of the brain occurs when the organ irreversibly
loses its capacity to maintain the vital integra-
tive functions regulated by the vegetative and
consciousness-mediating centers of the brain-
stem. Not surprisingly, the time when the state
of brain death is reached often precedes the
final demise of small collections of electrically
generating cells in the cerebral hemispheres,
Figure 8–1. Cerebral metabolism in brain death measured by
18
F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography
demonstrating the unequivocal finding of an ‘‘empty skull.’’ (Sequence of images: sagittal [left]; transverse [middle]; and
coronal [right]). (From Laureys et al.,
42
with permission.)
Brain Death
337
as evidenced by the observation that 20% of 56
patients meeting other clinical criteria for
brain death had residual EEG activity lasting
up to 168 hours.
31
Thus, EEG examinations
may pick up a few patients with brainstem
death who have not yet progressed to full brain
death. Given the extremely poor prognosis of
such individuals, using EEG as a criterion for
prolonging the period of futile life support is
not a service to them.
Diagnosis of Brain Death in
Profound Anesthesia or Coma
of Undetermined Etiology
It must be repeatedly emphasized that patients
with very deep but reversible anesthesia due to
sedative drug ingestion can give the clinical ap-
pearance of brain death, and even can have an
electrically silent EEG. Furthermore, recovery
in such instances has been observed even when
the EEG showed no physiologic activity for as
long as 50 hours. Given such evidence, when
and how is one to decide in such cases that
anesthesia has slipped into death and further
cardiopulmonary support is futile? Unfortu-
nately, few empirical data provide an answer to
the question, particularly if faced with the com-
plex problem of a patient with a coma of unde-
termined origin. In such cases, the combination
of a prolonged period of observation (more than
24 hours), loss of cerebral perfusion, and exclu-
sion of other potential confounds is required.
32
It is important to test drug levels and follow the
patient until the drug is eliminated. A general
guideline proposed for known intoxications is
the following: an observation period greater
than four times the half-life of the pharmaco-
logic agent should be used.
4
Of course, the pres-
ence of unmeasured metabolites, potentiation
by additional medications, and impaired renal
or hepatic clearance are likely to complicate in-
dividual evaluations.
Pitfalls in the Diagnosis
of Brain Death
Potential pitfalls accompany the diagnosis of
brain death, particularly when coma occurs in
hospitalized patients or those who have been
chronically ill. Almost none of these will lead
to serious error in diagnosis if the examining
physician is aware of them and attends to them
when examining individual patients who are
considered brain dead. In fact, there are no
reported cases of ‘‘recovery’’ from correctly di-
agnosed brain death.
With meticulous efforts, other organs (e.g.
heart, kidney, etc.) can be sustained, but usu-
ally only for hours or days.
33,34
Prolonged sur-
vival of peripheral organs is quite rare,
35,36
so
much so that in the few reported cases, one
must question whether the clinical criteria were
correctly met. Conversely, there are several
reported cases of recovery from ‘‘cardiac’’
death,
37
the Lazarus phenomenon (not to be
confused with Lazarus sign, a spinal reflex [see
page 334]). A number of case reports describe
patients with clinical and electrocardiographic
cardiac arrest who, after failed attempts at re-
suscitation, are pronounced dead, only to be
discovered to be alive later, sometimes in the
mortuary.
38
Some of these pitfalls are outlined
in Table 8–6.
Table 8–5 Electroencephalographic
Recording for Diagnosing
Cerebral Death
1. A minimum of eight scalp electrodes and
ear reference electrodes
2. Interelectrode impedances under 10,000 ohms,
but over 100 ohms
3. Test of integrity of recording system by
deliberate creation of electrode artifact by
manipulation
4. Interelectrode distances of at least
10 cm
5. No activity with a sensitivity increased to at
least 2 mV/mm for 30 minutes with inclusion
of appropriate calibrations
6. The use of 0.3- or 0.4-second time constants
during part of the recording
7. Recording with an electrocardiogram and
other monitoring devices, such as a pair
of electrodes on the dorsum of the right
hand, to detect extracerebral responses
8. Tests for reactivity to pain, loud noises,
or light
9. Recording by a qualified technician
10. Repeat record if doubt about electrocerebral
silence (ECS)
11. Telephonic transmitted electroencephalograms
are not appropriate for determination of ECS
From Bennett et al.
29
338
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
In comatose patients, pupillary fixation does
not always mean absence of brainstem func-
tion. In rare instances, the pupils may have
been fixed by pre-existing ocular or neurologic
disease. More commonly, particularly in a pa-
tient who has suffered cardiac arrest, atropine
has been injected during the resuscitation pro-
cess and pupils are widely dilated; fixed pupils
may result without indicating the absence of
brainstem function. Neuromuscular blocking
agents also can produce pupillary fixation, al-
though in these instances the pupils are usually
midposition or small rather than widely dilated.
Similarly, the absence of vestibulo-ocular
responses does not necessarily indicate absence
of brainstem vestibular function. Like pupillary
responses, vestibulo-ocular reflexes may be
absent if the end organ is either poisoned or
damaged. For example, traumatic injury pro-
ducing basal fractures of the petrous bone may
cause unilateral loss of caloric response. Some
otherwise neurologically normal patients suf-
fer labyrinthine dysfunction from peripheral
disease that predates the onset of coma. Other
patients with chronic illnesses have suffered
ototoxicity from a variety of drugs, including
antibiotics such as gentamicin. In these patients,
vestibulo-ocular responses may be absent even
though other brainstem processes are still func-
tioning. Finally, a variety of drugs, including
sedatives, anticholinergics, anticonvulsants,
chemotherapeutic agents, and tricyclic anti-
depressants, may suppress vestibular and/or
oculomotor function to the point where oculo-
vestibular reflexes disappear.
Pitfalls in the diagnosis of apnea in comatose
patients maintained on respirators have been
discussed above.
The absence of motor activity also does not
guarantee loss of brainstem function. Neuro-
muscular blockers are often used early in the
course of artificial respiration when the patient
is resisting the respirator; if suspected brain
death subsequently occurs, there may still be
enough circulating neuromuscular blocking
agent to produce absence of motor function
when the examination is carried out. One re-
port has described the simulation of brain
death by excessive sensitivity to succinylcho-
line
39
; in this case the presence of activity in the
EEG established cerebral viability. If neuro-
muscular blockade has been recently with-
drawn, guidelines require that a peripheral
nerve stimulator be used to demonstrate trans-
mission (e.g., a train of four stimulation pulses
produces four thumb twitches).
Therapeutic overdoses of sedative drugs to
treat anoxia or seizures likewise may abolish
reflexes and motor responses to noxious stim-
uli. At least two reports document formal brain
death examinations in reversible intoxications
with tricyclic antidepressant and barbiturate
agents.
40,41
There are pitfalls in using the EEG as an
ancillary technique in the diagnosis of cerebral
death. Isoelectric EEGs with subsequent re-
covery have been reported with sedative drug
overdoses, after anoxia, during hypothermia,
following cerebral trauma, and after enceph-
alitis, especially cases of diffuse acute dissem-
inated encephalomyelitis.
5
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Table 8–6 Some Pitfalls in the
Diagnosis of Brain Death
Findings
Possible Causes
1. Pupils fixed
Anticholinergic drugs,
tricyclic antidepressants
Neuromuscular blockers
Pre-existing disease
2. No oculovestibular
reflexes
Ototoxic agents
Vestibular suppression
Pre-existing disease
Basal skull fracture
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Posthyperventilation apnea
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‘‘Locked-in’’ state
Sedative drugs
5. Isoelectric
electroence-
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4
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340
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Chapter
9
Prognosis in Coma and Related
Disorders of Consciousness,
Mechanisms Underlying Outcomes,
and Ethical Considerations
INTRODUCTION
PROGNOSIS IN COMA
PROGNOSIS BY DISEASE STATE
Traumatic Brain Injury
Nontraumatic Coma
Vascular Disease
Central Nervous System Infection
Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
Hepatic Coma
Depressant Drug Poisoning
VEGETATIVE STATE
Clinical, Imaging, and Electrodiagnostic
Correlates of Prognosis in the
Vegetative State
MINIMALLY CONSCIOUS STATE
Late Recoveries From the Minimally
Conscious State
LOCKED-IN STATE
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