Flying Solo
In the twentieth century, perhaps no person was more emblematic of eminent creativity than
Frank
Lloyd Wright
. In 1991, Wright was recognized as the greatest American architect of all time by the
American Institute of Architects. He had an extraordinarily productive career, designing the famous
Fallingwater house near Pittsburgh, the Guggenheim Museum, and more than a thousand other
structures—roughly half of which were built. In a career that spanned seven decades, he completed an
average of more than 140 designs and 70 structures per decade.
Although Wright was prolific throughout the first quarter of the twentieth century, beginning in
1924, he took a nine-year nosedive. As of 1925, “Wright’s career had dwindled to a few houses in
Los Angeles,” write sociologist Roger Friedland and architect Harold Zellman. After studying
Wright’s career, the psychologist Ed de St. Aubin concluded that the lowest Wright “ever sank
architecturally occurred in the years between 1924 and 1933 when he completed only two projects.”
Over those nine years, Wright was about thirty-five times less productive than usual. During one two-
year period, he didn’t earn a single commission, and he was “floundering professionally,” notes
architecture critic Christopher Hawthorne. By 1932, “the world-famous Frank Lloyd Wright” was
“all but unemployed,” wrote biographer Brendan Gill. “His last major executed commission had been
a house for his cousin” in 1929, and “he was continuously in debt,” to the point of struggling “to find
the wherewithal to buy groceries.” What caused America’s greatest architect to languish?
Wright was one of the architects invited to participate in MacKinnon’s study of creativity.
Although he declined the invitation, the portrait of the creative architect that emerged from
MacKinnon’s analysis was the spitting image of Wright. In his designs, Frank Lloyd Wright appeared
to be a humanitarian. He introduced the concept of organic architecture, striving to foster harmony
between people and the environments in which they lived. But in his interactions with other people,
he operated like a taker. Experts believe that as an apprentice, Wright designed at least nine bootleg
houses, violating the terms of his contract that prohibited independent work. To hide the illegal work,
Wright reportedly persuaded one of his fellow draftsmen to sign off on several of the houses. At one
point, Wright promised his son John a salary for working as an assistant on several projects. When
John asked him to be paid, Wright sent him a bill itemizing the total amount of money that John had
cost over the course of his life, from birth to the present.
When designing the famous Fallingwater house, Wright stalled for months. When the client, Edgar
Kaufmann, finally called Wright to announce that he was driving 140 miles to see his progress, Wright
claimed the house was finished. But when Kaufmann arrived, Wright had not even completed a
drawing, let alone the house. In the span of a few hours, before Kaufmann’s eyes, Wright sketched out
a detailed design. Kaufmann had commissioned a weekend cottage at one of his family’s favorite
picnic spots, where they could see a waterfall. Wright had a radically different idea in mind: he drew
the house on a rock on top of the waterfall, which would be out of sight from the house. He convinced
Kaufmann to accept it, and eventually charged him $125,000 for it, more than triple the $35,000
specified in the contract. It’s unlikely that a giver would have ever been comfortable deviating so far
from a client’s expectations, let alone convincing him to endorse it enthusiastically and charging extra
for it. It was a taker’s mind-set, it seems, that gave Wright the gall to develop a truly original vision
and sell it to a client.
But the very same taker tendencies that served Wright well in Fallingwater also precipitated his
nine-year slump. For two decades, until 1911, Wright made his name as an architect living in Chicago
and Oak Park, Illinois, where he benefited from the assistance of craftspeople and sculptors. In 1911,
he designed Taliesin, an estate in a remote Wisconsin valley. Believing he could excel alone, he
moved out there. But as time passed, Wright spun his wheels during “long years of enforced
idleness,” Gill wrote. At Taliesin, Wright lacked access to talented apprentices. “The isolation he
chose by creating Taliesin,” de St. Aubin observes, “left him without the elements that had become
essential to his life: architectural commissions and skillful workers to help him complete his building
designs.”
Frank Lloyd Wright’s drought lasted until he gave up on independence and began to work
interdependently again with talented collaborators. It wasn’t his own idea: his wife Olgivanna
convinced him to start a fellowship for apprentices to help him with his work. When apprentices
joined him in 1932, his productivity soared, and he was soon working on the Fallingwater house,
which would be seen by many as the greatest work of architecture in modern history. Wright ran his
fellowship program for a quarter century, but even then, he struggled to appreciate how much he
depended on apprentices. He refused to pay apprentices, requiring them to do cooking, cleaning, and
fieldwork. Wright “was a great architect,” explained his former apprentice
Edgar Tafel
, who worked
on Fallingwater, “but he needed people like myself to make his designs work—although you couldn’t
tell him that.”
Wright’s story exposes the gap between our natural tendencies to attribute creative success to
individuals and the collaborative reality that underpins much truly great work. This gap isn’t limited
to strictly creative fields. Even in seemingly independent jobs that rely on raw brainpower, our
success depends more on others than we realize. For the past decade, several Harvard professors
have studied
cardiac surgeons
in hospitals and security analysts in investment banks. Both groups
specialize in knowledge work: they need serious smarts to rewire patients’ hearts and organize
complex information for stock recommendations. According to management guru Peter Drucker, these
“knowledge workers, unlike manual workers in manufacturing, own the means of production: they
carry that knowledge in their heads and can therefore take it with them.” But carrying knowledge isn’t
actually so easy.
In one study, professors Robert Huckman and Gary Pisano wanted to know whether surgeons get
better with practice. Since surgeons are in high demand, they perform procedures at multiple
hospitals. Over a two-year period, Huckman and Pisano tracked 38,577 procedures performed by
203 cardiac surgeons at forty-three different hospitals. They focused on coronary artery bypass grafts,
where surgeons open a patient’s chest and attach a vein from a leg or a section of chest artery to
bypass a blockage in an artery to the heart. On average, 3 percent of patients died during these
procedures.
When Huckman and Pisano examined the data, they discovered a remarkable pattern. Overall, the
surgeons didn’t get better with practice. They only got better at the specific hospital where they
practiced. For every procedure they handled at a given hospital, the risk of patient mortality dropped
by 1 percent. But the risk of mortality stayed the same at other hospitals. The surgeons couldn’t take
their performance with them. They weren’t getting better at performing coronary artery bypass grafts.
They were becoming more familiar with particular nurses and anesthesiologists, learning about their
strengths and weaknesses, habits, and styles. This familiarity helped them avoid patient deaths, but it
didn’t carry over to other hospitals. To reduce the risk of patient mortality, the surgeons needed
relationships with specific surgical team members.
While Huckman and Pisano were collecting their hospital data, down the hall at Harvard, a
similar study was under way in the financial sector. In investment banks, security analysts conduct
research to produce earnings forecasts and make recommendations to money management firms about
whether to buy or sell a company’s stock.
Star analysts
carry superior knowledge and expertise that
they should be able to use regardless of who their colleagues are. As investment research executive
Fred Fraenkel explains: “Analysts are one of the most mobile Wall Street professions because their
expertise is portable. I mean, you’ve got it when you’re here and you’ve got it when you’re there. The
client base doesn’t change. You need your Rolodex and your files, and you’re in business.”
To test this assumption, Boris Groysberg studied more than a thousand equity and fixed-income
security analysts over a nine-year period at seventy-eight different firms. The analysts were ranked in
effectiveness by thousands of clients at investment management institutions based on the quality of
their earnings estimates, industry knowledge, written reports, service, stock selection, and
accessibility and responsiveness. The top three analysts in each of eighty industry sectors were
ranked as stars, earning between $2 million and $5 million. Groysberg and his colleagues tracked
what happened when the analysts switched firms. Over the nine-year period, 366 analysts—9 percent
—moved, so it was possible to see whether the stars maintained their success in new firms.
Even though they were supposed to be individual stars, their performance wasn’t portable. When
star analysts moved to a different firm, their performance dropped, and it stayed lower for at least
five years. In the first year after the move, the star analysts were 5 percent less likely to be ranked
first, 6 percent less likely to be ranked second, 1 percent less likely to be ranked third, and 6 percent
more likely to be unranked. Even five years after the move, the stars were 5 percent less likely to be
ranked first and 8 percent more likely to be unranked. On average, firms lost about $24 million by
hiring star analysts. Contrary to the beliefs of Fraenkel and other industry insiders, Groysberg and his
colleagues conclude that “hiring stars is advantageous neither to stars themselves, in terms of their
performance, nor to hiring companies in terms of their market value.”
But some of the star analysts did maintain their success. If they moved with their teams, the stars
showed no decline at all in performance. The star analysts who moved solo had a 5 percent
probability of being ranked first, while the star analysts who moved with teammates had a 10 percent
probability of being ranked first—the same as those who didn’t move at all. In another study,
Groysberg and his colleagues found that analysts were more likely to maintain their star performance
if they worked with high-quality colleagues in their teams and departments. The star analysts relied
on knowledgeable colleagues for information and new ideas.
The star investment analysts and the cardiac surgeons depended heavily on collaborators who
knew them well or had strong skills of their own. If Frank Lloyd Wright had been more of a giver than
a taker, could he have avoided the nine years in which his income and reputation plummeted? George
Meyer thinks so.
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