From Enemies to Allies
During the 2008 global financial crisis, one of the many companies to suffer was a French firm that
I’ll call Nouveau. Nouveau was headquartered in a small city in the middle of France that boasted a
beloved soccer team. The founders had chosen the city as their headquarters in an effort to restore the
city’s glory, but the population was shrinking and profits were falling, and there was pressure to
relocate to a larger city. Nouveau’s executives decided to save headquarters with a dramatic
reorganization. Seeking outside assistance, the CFO issued a request for proposals to consulting
firms. Nouveau was open to working with whichever firm presented the best proposal, with one
exception: one particular consulting firm could not be trusted. This firm had been working with
Nouveau’s chief competitor for years. Nouveau’s top brass worried that inside information could be
leaked accidentally—or even stolen by a taker.
The suspect consulting firm’s
lead partner
, who I’ll call Phillippe, was aware of the distrust from
the Nouveau executives. Phillippe’s firm had submitted proposals to Nouveau in the past, and they
were always rejected. The consultants had repeatedly explained the firm’s strict confidentiality
policies, but the Nouveau executives didn’t buy it. Eventually, the consultants concluded that it was a
waste of time to continue making proposals. But Phillippe was genuinely interested in contributing to
Nouveau’s success, so he led his team in preparing and submitting a proposal for the reorganization.
Then they sat down to brainstorm: how can we prove to Nouveau that we’re trustworthy?
Phillippe’s firm was the last to pitch to Nouveau. At the pitch meeting, Phillippe arrived at
Nouveau’s headquarters with five consultants in tow. They were escorted into a large room where ten
Nouveau executives sat across from them. Phillippe’s team presented the proposal, and the Nouveau
executives were unmoved. “We like your proposal,” one executive said, “but we can’t trust you. Why
should we enter into a relationship with you? How can we be sure that you will put our interests
first?” Phillippe reminded them of his firm’s confidentiality policies and code of honor, reinforcing
that its reputation hinged on upholding the highest standards for clients, but his promise fell on deaf
ears.
Phillippe had run out of logical arguments, so he resorted to the only other ammunition that he had.
He reached into his briefcase and pulled out the blue scarf of the city’s famed soccer club. Donning
the scarf as a symbol of hometown pride, he made a plea: “We’ve been trying to convince you for
many years that our confidentiality policies can be trusted. Since we’re not managing to say that with
words, we’d like to show our commitment in a different way.” The five members of Phillippe’s team
followed suit, putting the soccer scarves around their necks.
The Nouveau executives were surprised. They asked which partner would take the lead on the
project. Phillippe stepped up: “I am going to take the lead, and we will begin our work over the
August break. I can commit to this because your headquarters is next to my home.”
A few hours later, Phillippe’s firm landed the project.
The Nouveau executives had not known that Phillippe was from their city. “This was a
reorganization task,” Phillippe explains, “and having someone care about this city, and the people
living in it, was a plus for the employees and the company. It was a bit of
common ground
.”
Common ground is a major influence on giving behaviors. In one experiment, psychologists in the
United Kingdom recruited fans of the Manchester United soccer team for a study. When walking from
one building to another, the soccer fans saw a runner slip on a grass bank, where he fell holding his
ankle and screaming in pain. Would they help him?
It depended on the T-shirt that he was wearing. When he wore a plain T-shirt, only 33 percent
helped. When he wore a Manchester United T-shirt, 92 percent helped. Yale psychologist Jack
Dovidio calls this “activating a
common identity
.” When people share an identity with another
person, giving to that person takes on an otherish quality. If we help people who belong to our group,
we’re also helping ourselves, as we’re making the group better off.
*
A common identity was a key active ingredient behind the rapid growth of Freecycle, and the
unusually high levels of giving. When Berkeley professor Robb Willer’s team compared Craigslist
and Freecycle members, they were interested in the degree to which each group experienced
identification and cohesion. The more members identified, the more they saw Craigslist or Freecycle
as an important part of their self-images, as reflecting their core values. The more cohesion members
reported, the more they felt part of a meaningful Craigslist or Freecycle community. Would members
experience greater identification and cohesion with Craigslist or Freecycle?
The answer depends on how much a member has received from the site. For members who
received or bought few items, there were no differences in identification and cohesion between
Craigslist and Freecycle. People were equally attached and connected to both sites. But for members
who received or bought many items, there were stark differences: members reported substantially
greater identification and cohesion with Freecycle than Craigslist. This was true even after
accounting for members’ tendencies toward giving: regardless of whether they were givers or not,
members who participated frequently felt more attached to Freecycle than to Craigslist. Why would
people feel more identified and connected with a community where they give freely rather than
matching evenly?
Willer’s team argues that for two central reasons receiving is a fundamentally different
experience in generalized giving and direct matching systems. The first distinction lies in the terms of
the exchange. In direct matching, the exchange is an economic transaction. When members buy an item
on Craigslist, they know that sellers are typically trying to maximize their own gains with little
concern for buyers’ interests. In contrast, in generalized giving, givers aren’t getting anything tangible
back from the recipients. When members receive an item on Freecycle, they’re accepting a gift from a
giver with no strings attached. According to Willer’s team, this “suggests that the giver is motivated
to act in the interest of the recipient rather than in his or her own self-interest,” which “communicates
a regard for the recipient beyond the instrumental value attached to the item itself.” In comparison
with an economic transaction, a gift is value-laden.
The second distinction has to do with who’s responsible for the benefits you receive. When you
buy on Craigslist, if you receive an item at a good price, you can chalk it up to your savvy as a
negotiator or the kindness (or naïveté) of an individual seller. You’re exchanging back and forth with
another individual; you’re not getting anything from the Craigslist community. “As a result,
participants in direct exchange will be less inclined to identify with the group because they will be
less likely to derive the emotional experience of group membership,” Willer’s team writes. In
generalized giving, on the other hand, the community is the source of the gifts you receive. An
effective system of generalized giving typically involves cycles of exchange with the following
structure: person A gives to person B, who gives to person C. When Freecycle members receive
multiple items from different people, they attribute the benefits to the whole group, not to individual
members.
Together, these two forces facilitate the development of a bond with Freecycle. Instead of buying
an item from another person, people feel that they’re receiving gifts from a community. The gratitude
and goodwill generated means that they begin to identify with the community, seeing themselves as
Freecycle members. Once this identification happens, people are willing to give freely to anyone who
shares the Freecycle identity. This extends their willingness to give across the whole Freecycle
community, spurring members to offer items that they no longer need in response to requests when
they can help. By giving away things they don’t want, takers can feel like they’re not losing anything
of value, yet maintain the norm of giving so they can still get free stuff when they want it. For
matchers, because there’s no way to pay it back, paying it forward is the next best thing—especially
since they’re helping people just like themselves. This is what happened with the parents who gave
away baby supplies: they restored their sense of a reciprocal, even exchange by donating items they
no longer needed to fellow parents in similar situations.
People are motivated to give to others when they identify as part of a common community. But not
all individuals and groups are equally likely to attract this type of identification. There’s something
else about the Freecycle community that fosters identification—and it’s a factor well understood by
Adam Rifkin.
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