Ten Teachings
was written to reach and teach the same (or simi-
lar) readers as
The China Mirror
.
However, more recent scholarship demonstrates that the issue is far
from resolved. Working largely from circumstantial evidence, Gomi Fu-
mihiko argues that Sugawara Munenaga (thirteenth century) is the most
likely author.
69
In contrast, Uwayokote Masataka finds the attribution to
Yuasa Munenari (“a warrior with deep connections to Kyoto”) most “en-
ticing,” but in the end he rejects it as unlikely and abandons all efforts to
identify an author.
70
Uwayokote’s retreat forestalls a need for further dis-
cussion of his study in this context, but should Gomi be correct,
Ten
Teachings
would be the work of an author based in Kyoto at the time.
This in turn would mean that
The China Mirror
and
Ten Teachings
would
have less similar initial contexts of production than Asami’s work sug-
66. Nishio and Kobayashi,
Kokon chomonjū ( jō)
, 28. My analysis is based on the
entirety of this two-volume set (
Kokon chomonjū ( jō)
and
Kokon chomonjū (ge)
).
67. Asami,
Jikkunshō
, 502 and 506.
68. Asami,
Jikkunshō
, 502.
69. Gomi,
Shomotsu no chūseishi
, 388–98.
70. Uwayokote, “‘Jikkunshō’ no hensha o megutte,” 70–71; see also 76.
The Continent as Object of Knowledge
159
gests. Nevertheless, as Gomi also points out, the colophon to
Ten Teach-
ings
indisputably signals
bakufu
readership.
71
Thus, regardless of original
intended audience, both
Ten Teachings
and
The China Mirror
are texts
that offer ideas of China that resonated with warrior readers. Therefore,
to read
Ten Teachings
and
The China Mirror
together should help clarify
what Japanese in the middle of the thirteenth century (particularly mem-
bers of the rising warrior elite) saw as the essential or desirable China.
Indeed, within
Ten Teachings
, Chinese people, texts, and occasion-
ally history are present in significant numbers. Specifically, of the 293 sec-
tions (the general preface cited above, individual prefaces to each of the
ten scrolls, and 282 anecdotes), 92 (3
1
percent) make a direct reference to
a Chinese proper noun of some sort, typically a person or a text.
72
Given
these figures, it is worth considering how and to what ends these explicit
acknowledgments of China are made and invoked.
Upon closer inspection, things are not as simple as the numbers might
suggest. Although
Ten Teachings
contains nearly two hundred mentions
of individuals or compositions from China, only approximately seventy-
five contain specific additional information that actually grounds them
in China as such.
73
That is, fewer than half of the invocations of things
“Chinese” provide either a Chinese location (be it something as broad as
Morokoshi
or as specific as the name of a city) or any sort of recognizably
Chinese temporal frame of reference (such as the name of a particular
71. Gomi,
Shomotsu no chūseishi
, 389.
72. In making these calculations, I included only instances of the direct mention
of a Chinese person, text, or place within the body of
Ten Teachings
. As a result, a line
such as the following (which despite ultimately referring to the
Wenxuan
makes no
obvious reference to its source) would not be included: “The mountain does not give
away tiny clods of earth—that’s why it’s tall” (Asami,
Jikkunshō
, 23). Tallying the actual
nouns cited, there are approximately 180 references—ranging from a passing mention
in a list of exemplars or an allusion in a poem to a full-fledged anecdote. In instances of
listing, I have counted each “item” as a separate reference. At the risk of stating the
obvious, a mention of a person and a place or time was counted as a single item.
73. In fact, there are doubtless more that can be inferred as being about and/or set
in China, simply due to their location within the text—that is, as part of a list of Chi-
nese precedents or in proximity to an anecdote clearly set in China. However, while my
insistence on an actual “signal” for each item does reduce the overall numbers some-
what, to be less rigorous in the application of this standard would have resulted in a
more approximate impressionistic discussion than seemed productive.
160
Containing China
dynasty). In other words, most of the episodes about or allusions to what
one might think of as China lack substantive “reality-signals” that locate
the content on the continent.
74
What this means is that there are two dif-
ferent types of China in the text.
For the majority of the text, there is an unmarked China. For in-
stance, in a more extreme example, Confucius appears in
Ten Teachings
nine times. Only once, however, is he mentioned in a way that foregrounds
a Chinese origin—as Confucius of Lu.
75
The same can be said of the
wildly popular Tang poet Bai Juyi, who likewise appears nine times and
is identified only once as living during the Tang (and, thus, as Chinese).
On the one hand, one might argue that this is because it is self-evident
that Confucius and Bai were Chinese, so there was no need to spell it
out for the audience. On the other hand, one could as easily propose that
given the far-reaching influence of both figures in Japan, there was prob-
ably neither a widespread particular need nor a desire to emphasize their
continental origins as such. This latter reading makes more sense when
one bears in mind the previously encountered explanation from
The China
Mirror
, in which Confucius relocated to Japan on a raft with his disci-
ples in tow, as well as Shigenori’s repeatedly used device (mentioned above)
of identifying Japanese incarnations of Chinese cultural heroes as their
implicit culminations.
76
In this logic, identity is less a question of origins
and more one of ultimate destinations.
In fact, such erasure of overtly Chinese elements to create a placeless
or timeless China that lingers as a semi-acknowledged cultural touchstone
is a recurring maneuver within literary representations of China from the
late twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, a point I will revisit in this chap-
ter’s conclusion. For now, suffice it to say that this “unmarked” image of
China that lacks specific Chinese features is consistent with Chino Kao-
ri’s emphasis on a disconnect between imagined and actual Chinas and
reflects a common medieval method for narrating Japan’s neighbor. One
might think of it as an idea of a China one knows to be China but that
is nevertheless not marked as such.
74. I borrow the term “reality-signal” from Reinart Koselleck (
Futures Past
, 207).
75. Asami,
Jikkunshō
, 295.
76. On Confucius’s fate, see Hirasawa and Yoshida,
Kara kagami: Shōkōkanbon
, 8.
The Continent as Object of Knowledge
161
However, this is not the only China to emerge in
Ten Teachings
. In
contrast to the placeless or timeless China that operates as a cultural
touchstone, there is a China that is specifically and clearly tied to the con-
tinent. This becomes visible in a significant number of stories—just over
seventy “episodes” contained in roughly fifty distinct entries—that in-
clude Chinese locations and dates in ways that suggest that the setting
itself is important.
77
They offer a China that is marked as such. It is to
these that I turn next to investigate whether there is any particular les-
son that can be drawn from taking these stories as a set—in other words,
whether China as a construct has a specific meaning when it is deliber-
ately framed in a Chinese historical context, and if so, how this might or
might not tally with how China (or Chinese history) works as an object
of knowledge in
The China Mirror
.
To be clear, there is no handy or obvious trajectory in terms of how
the stories are ordered within the text. That is, China does not start out
grandly and then end in disgrace as one moves through the work. As one
progresses through time, however, it is a diff erent story. Not unlike
The
China Mirror
, the dynasties that receive the most attention are not the
contemporary Southern Song but rather the Western and Eastern Zhou
(collectively, eleventh century BCE–256 BCE), the Western and Eastern
Han (collectively, 206 BCE–220 CE), and the Tang.
78
Early China fares
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