Figure 4: Reported measles cases by WHO Region, 2005-2010.
(Source: Cases from annual Joint Reporting Form 193 WHO Member
States; Data as of August 2011).
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ECONOMIC ANALYSES OF MEASLES, RUBELLA AND CRS
CONTROL AND ELIMINATION
Numerous studies document the cost-effectiveness and
significant net economic benefits of measles and rubella
vaccination efforts
1
. In 1985, White and colleagues reported
economic benefits that significantly exceeded the costs
associated with using MMR vaccine for routine vaccination in
the United States of America (USA) (23). An updated analysis
published in 2004 confirmed continued cost-savings associated
with the current USA 2-dose MMR routine vaccination schedule,
and estimated annual net benefits exceeding US$ 9.7 billion
(US$2011) (24). One study estimated a net saving for the WHO Region of the Americas of over
US$ 282 million (US$2011) from investments made in regional measles elimination between
2000 and 2020, and suggested a positive impact on health systems (25). Developed countries
continue to pay high costs associated with managing outbreaks associated with importations
(26, 27).
Similar to the experience of developed countries, studies demonstrate the net value of
vaccination in developing countries, although the lower levels of routine immunization
coverage and single-dose schedules used in these countries make SIAs relatively much more
cost-effective (28–30). For example, introducing a second measles dose in SIAs in Zambia
appears cost- and life-saving compared to a single dose of measles vaccine through routine
immunization (28). For India, SIAs also appear cost-effective (30). Estimates suggest that
Measles and Rubella Initiative investments between 2000 and 2007 prevented 3.6 million child
deaths at an average donor cost of approximately US$ 220 (US$2011) per death prevented (31),
and in sub-Saharan Africa measles vaccination ranks as the third most cost-effective public
health intervention available after vitamin A and zinc supplementation (32). Finally, a recent
economic analysis demonstrated the cost-effectiveness of measles reduction goals and
identified measles eradication as the most cost-effective strategy considered (33).
The economic analysis evidence for rubella and CRS control similarly suggested significant
net savings. A 2002 review of the literature found evidence from 10 studies demonstrating
that incorporation of RCV into national childhood immunization schedules appeared both
cost-beneficial and cost-effective (34). Estimates suggest a wide range of the lifetime cost of
treating a single CRS case, with some exceeding US$ 75 000 (US$2011) (34). Changing from
measles vaccine to a combined MR vaccine increases the cost per dose by about US$ 0.30
for MR vaccine and by US$ 0.70–0.95 for MMR vaccine based on using 10-dose vials (35). Not
surprisingly, using the combined form of vaccine represents a more cost-effective option than
using both a measles vaccine and a rubella vaccine (36).
At approximately US$
1 per dose, measles
vaccination is a
highly cost-effective
intervention.
Adding rubella to
measles vaccine
increases the cost only
slightly, and allows for
shared delivery and
administration costs.
1
For purposes of
comparison, all
economic estimates
are converted into
2011 US dollars
(US$2011).
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STRATEGY TO ELIMINATE
MEASLES, RUBELLA AND
CRS
The strategy for 2012–2020 builds on the experiences in the Americas and in countries in other
WHO regions that successfully eliminated indigenous transmission of measles, and in some
cases rubella and CRS. High coverage with two doses of MCV serves as the foundation required
to ensure high population immunity against measles. High coverage with one dose of RCV
provides sufficient protection against rubella, although many countries choose the operational
advantages of using a combined MR vaccine in their programmes, and deliver two MR doses.
This Strategic Plan introduces several new components, including an emphasis on outbreak
preparedness, timely detection and rapid response. The additional focus on communication
and public engagement highlights the critical need to address these issues now. The Plan also
recognizes and emphasizes the essential role of research and development to refine the tools
for measles elimination and eradication.
The five components of the strategy are:
1. Achieve and maintain high levels of population immunity by providing high vaccination
coverage with two doses of measles- and rubella-containing vaccines.
2. Monitor disease using effective surveillance and evaluate programmatic efforts to ensure
progress.
3. Develop and maintain outbreak preparedness, respond rapidly to outbreaks and manage
cases.
4. Communicate and engage to build public confidence and demand for immunization.
5. Perform the research and development needed to support cost-effective operations and
improve vaccination and diagnostic tools.
1. ACHIEVE AND MAINTAIN HIGH LEVELS OF POPULATION IMMUNITY BY PROVIDING
HIGH VACCINATION COVERAGE WITH TWO DOSES OF MEASLES- AND
RUBELLA-CONTAINING VACCINES
Measles and rubella elimination require achieving and maintaining high levels of population
immunity. For measles, vaccination coverage will need to reach and remain at or exceed 95%
with each of the two doses of MCV (for countries yet to introduce RCV), MR or MMR vaccines
at the district and national levels. All unvaccinated children old enough to receive MCV1
(combined with rubella vaccine where appropriate) should receive it through routine health
services according to the national schedule, typically at 9 or 12 months of age. Strengthening
routine immunization is a critical component of the strategy to control and eliminate measles,
as it is the foundation to achieving and sustaining high levels of immunity to measles in the
community.
Even high coverage with one dose of MCV will still leave people unprotected and will not prevent
large outbreaks. A second dose, given through SIAs or routine services, is required. Various
tactics have been employed in different settings. Countries with stronger and more stable
immunization programmes have relied on routine services to deliver the second measles dose
to children one month after the first dose, generally between 15–18 months of age or at school
entry. Countries not able to achieve high and homogenous vaccination coverage with the first
and second dose of MCV through their routine immunization systems will need to use SIAs (37).
These can be summarized as a one-time “catch-up” SIA targeting a broad age group (often
6
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9 months to 14 years of age) to immunize the most susceptible children, followed by periodic
“follow-up” SIAs targeting children born since the previous one regardless of vaccination
status, with special efforts made to reach children who have never been vaccinated against
measles. The interval between follow-up SIAs is determined by epidemiological analysis,
including coverage rates, the age distribution of cases, and the estimated rate of accumulation
of susceptible children. These non-selective SIAs not only give a second dose to children
reached by the vaccination programme but also ensure that missed children are protected,
especially those in poor or hard-to-reach communities. Focusing on the goal of achieving and
maintaining high levels of population immunity offers the flexibility for countries and regions
to adapt their approach as they improve their ability to deliver measles- and rubella-containing
vaccines through their routine health services. As routine coverage with two doses increases,
campaigns will need to occur less frequently, and can eventually cease altogether.
Countries that do not yet include immunization against rubella in their routine health services
should consider adding it once they are able to achieve and maintain measles vaccination
coverage of 80% or greater through routine and/or regular campaigns. This decision will need
to consider the availability of appropriate infrastructure and resources for child and adult
immunization programmes, competing disease priorities, and the ability to conduct high-
quality campaigns to close the rubella immunity gap at the time of introduction.
Efforts are needed to record all doses (through routine programmes or SIAs) of measles and
rubella vaccination on child health cards. Improved record keeping is a strategic prerequisite to
improve monitoring of progress towards coverage targets, and can also potentially strengthen
routine EPI. For example, a focus on recording doses can lead to an increased distribution and
retention of child immunization cards and facilitate school enrolment vaccination screening
policies. In addition, ensuring that a reliable supply of quality MCV and RCV at an affordable
price (vaccine security) is critical to achieving the immunization coverage levels needed to
reach these goals. Assuring vaccine security requires strong engagement with industry and
partners, as well as accurate forecasting of vaccine supplies.
2. MONITOR DISEASE USING EFFECTIVE SURVEILLANCE AND EVALUATE
PROGRAMMATIC EFFORTS TO ENSURE PROGRESS
Building and maintaining an effective measles and rubella surveillance system remains
vital to provide essential information to set priorities, plan activities, allocate resources,
implement prevention programmes, respond to outbreaks and evaluate control measures.
WHO developed standards for epidemiological surveillance of measles and rubella for use
in conjunction with the updated surveillance performance indicators and the measures for
monitoring progress towards elimination (38,39). These standards are based on case-based
surveillance with laboratory confirmation, in-depth outbreak investigations, and identification
of viral genotypes from every outbreak. Outbreaks help to identify gaps in routine coverage
and, where applicable, SIA coverage. National integrated measles and rubella surveillance
systems must cover each nation completely, and perform with sufficient sensitivity to detect
any ongoing transmission. Laboratory confirmation represents an increasingly critical
component of effective surveillance, because it helps to exclude other diseases with fever and
rash, and trace importations. For measles and rubella laboratory confirmation, the standard
LabNet IgM test in serum samples is used. In some countries, oral fluid or dried blood spots
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from suspected cases are also used for IgM testing. In addition, rapid diagnostic tests are
being developed to support field investigations. As countries progress towards elimination,
molecular surveillance becomes increasingly critical to identify importations, trace the
transmission pathways of measles and rubella viruses and document the interruption of
endemic disease transmission. To monitor better the impact of RCV introduction, countries
will need to establish and expand CRS surveillance. Standard sentinel surveillance may need
to be adapted in countries with limited health and curative infrastructure.
Planning requires accurate measurement of vaccination coverage. The quality of the data on
the number of doses delivered improves through training and supervision. Countries should
be supported to adopt new tools and technologies for reporting, tracking and supervising
service delivery.
Countries should also conduct regular high-quality surveys to verify and benchmark vaccination
coverage based on service-delivery data or provide coverage estimates if these data are
unavailable. Surveys should also be used to assess the success of communications strategies
and to identify reasons for non-vaccination. If possible, this information should come from
already-planned large surveys, such as the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple
Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), or post-SIA coverage surveys. Serological surveys may also
serve as useful tool to assess gaps in population immunity and areas for potential outbreaks.
Finally, countries need to establish and maintain reliable systems for monitoring adverse
events following immunization (AEFIs). These events should be rapidly and impartially
investigated to provide accurate information that can allay the fear of vaccines, particularly
combination vaccines containing measles, that exists in some communities. Paradoxically, as
vaccine coverage improves and cases of the disease disappear, perceptions about the need
for vaccine decrease and perceptions about the risk of AEFIs increase. In addition to prompt
investigation, an AEFI surveillance system should include treatment guidelines for all AEFI and
guidance on effective and transparent communication to maintain confidence in immunization
programmes. Measles SIAs provide the opportunity to review current practice and to establish
a surveillance system for AEFIs, or to strengthen an existing system and increase awareness
about vaccine safety. Several countries that used SIAs to introduce AEFI surveillance activities
subsequently extended them to their routine immunization system.
3. DEVELOP AND MAINTAIN OUTBREAK PREPAREDNESS AND RESPOND RAPIDLY TO
OUTBREAKS AND MANAGE CASES
Measles is classically an outbreak disease. Although outbreaks will occur at all phases of
measles control, they should become smaller and less frequent as countries and regions get
closer to elimination. Outbreaks can be useful to identify gaps in immunization programme
performance that may not be evident through monitoring vaccination coverage. Immunization
programme weaknesses can include low coverage, heterogeneity of coverage with pockets of
missed children, population movements, community resistance, cold-chain failure, inadequate
human resources, poor data collection, and reporting errors. The community awareness and
political attention resulting from outbreaks can help to mobilize effectively the resources
needed to correct these programme weaknesses. Measles and rubella outbreak response
efforts should seek to prevent further transmission and cases by urgently vaccinating the
population.
Outbreak investigations, laboratory confirmation of suspected cases and detailed analysis of
available measles/rubella surveillance data help to characterize the outbreak and ensure the
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implementation of an effective response. WHO has developed a series of guidelines for measles
outbreak investigation and response in elimination, mortality reduction and emergency
settings. In elimination settings, a single measles case constitutes an outbreak requiring a
rapid investigation and response (40). In countries with mortality reduction goals or higher
disease incidence, each confirmed outbreak requires a thorough risk assessment to guide the
decisions and planning of outbreak response immunization. Although the approach to outbreak
response varies — depending on national measles control goals, the level of susceptibility
in the population at different ages, the risk for spread and complications, and the existing
health-service infrastructure — in general terms, responding faster is better. The response
should target communities and age groups identified as the most affected and/or most at risk
of more severe disease and death (41). In emergency settings, urgent coordinated SIAs that
include vitamin A supplementation are often conducted to prevent outbreaks and reduce child
mortality (42). Preparations for eventual outbreaks should include a plan for locally-funded
outbreak response and provision of vaccine stocks for emergency use. At the global level, in
order to reduce the disruption of routine preventative activities due to measles outbreaks,
the MR Initiative will develop a funding mechanism for the rapid mobilization of vaccines for
emergency outbreak response.
Measles and rubella outbreak response efforts should also seek to reduce morbidity and
mortality by providing appropriate case management. Administration of vitamin A to people
with measles decreases the severity of the disease, and the risk of death or xerophthalmia
and its possible progression to blindness. All suspected measles cases should receive two
doses of vitamin A (three doses if the child presents with ocular complications), following
guidelines for the integrated management of childhood illness and supportive care at the
first referral level, including additional fluids (such as oral rehydration solution), antipyretics
and, when appropriate, antibiotics and referral to the next level of care (43,44). During and
following rubella outbreaks, countries not yet using rubella vaccine should implement active
CRS surveillance, with special attention paid to evaluating the rubella immunization status of
pregnant women with suspected rash illness. In countries using rubella vaccine, additional
measures should be undertaken such as investigation and vaccination of contacts to reduce
the risk of exposure to pregnant women.
4. COMMUNICATE AND ENGAGE TO BUILD PUBLIC CONFIDENCE AND DEMAND FOR
IMMUNIZATION
Communication and social mobilization efforts aim to foster community ownership and
demand for immunization, to increase coverage and to help achieve measles, rubella, and
CRS goals. Community awareness of immunization rights, benefits, safety and available
services will promote public acceptance and participation. Experience with polio and measles
programmes demonstrates the need for targeted and specific strategies to address resistance
to immunization in communities, including health workers (45). Moreover, community and civil
society demand for immunization will hold governments and programmes accountable to their
commitments, thereby improving programme sustainability.
Vaccinating over 95% of the target population against measles and rubella requires
well-conceived, professionally implemented communication strategies linked directly to
programme goals. A renewed emphasis should be given to effective communication and public
engagement with parents, health professionals, community leaders and the media, to gain
their trust, understand and address vaccine concerns and support vaccine acceptance.
GLOBAL MEASLES
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Communication strategies should address culture and belief systems and aim for dialogue and
engagement with communities, rather than one-way communication. They should incorporate
traditional media channels, lessons from commercial and public marketing campaigns, social
media, and proven new techniques. Strategies must address the nature and threat of measles,
rubella and CRS, the safety, efficacy and contraindications of the vaccines and strategies to
manage AEFIs.
Planned communication and engagement activities include the following:
•
Data collection and analysis and operations research to determine the challenges,
evidence-based messages, strategies and channels for community engagement.
•
Communication surveillance to understand any emerging community concerns about
vaccination and to take appropriate measures to address them.
•
Advocacy with decision-makers, including political leaders, health-care professionals,
teachers and other educators, religious and traditional leaders, women’s, youth, labour,
business and professional associations and other influential groups — to explain the
benefits of immunization, address community concerns and invite their active participation
in the programme.
•
Training of community leaders in basic health information, message development and
dissemination, interpersonal communication, community engagement and mobilization.
•
Information campaigns using clear evidence-based messages that address community
needs communicated through interpersonal communication, community events, or mass
and social media.
Strategies can also include population-based incentives for vaccine demand (e.g. bundled
health interventions), provided that they respect the autonomy and informed consent of
programme beneficiaries.
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