Teaching outdoor and adventure activities: an investigation of a primary school physical education professional development p

Part of the effectiveness of this apprentice model is due to the fact that the 
learning is contextualised. At this stage of the apprenticeship, the teachers are 
practicing teaching on their own (self-directed learning) and request the help of the 
facilitator only when necessary. According to Brown and colleagues (1989),
‘situations 
might be said to co-produce knowledge through activity. Learning and cognition, it is 
now possible to argue, are fundamentally situated’ (p. 32). Researchers maintain that 
that repeated exposure to information over time, as opposed to all at once, builds 
stronger memory associations. Taking into account social constructivist learning 
theory and research findings on effective professional development, it could be argued 
that where teachers are able to learn together in a supportive context, effective 
professional development is facilitated. This is further highlighted by Armour and 
Duncombe (2004), when they suggested that ‘CPD providers need to be able to tailor 
their activities to teachers’ very specific needs and the exigencies of individual and 
schools contexts’ (p. 9).

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63 
These three models informed the design, operation and instructional strategies of 
the professional development programme for this study and are aligned with the key 
features of effective professional development underpinned by social constructivist 
theory. They also ‘identify the variables that mediate (explain) and moderate (interact 
or influence) professional development’s effects (Desimone, 2009, p. 184). Further 
detail of how the pertinent characteristics from each of these models are incorporated 
into the programme content, operation and instruction are outlined in chapter five.
Teacher Change 
Professional development is comprised of and dependent on two theories: theory 
of instruction (this has been explained in the previous section and is operationalised in 
chapter five) and theory of change (Wayne et al, 2008). This section will deal with 
theories of change that have informed professional development practice and research.
Bowring-Carr and West-Burnham (1999) stated that the only answer when faced with 
continuous change is to keep learning. Change for teachers involves more than just 
enhanced knowledge; it requires ‘a belief in the process itself and recognition that 
renewal and development are essential’ it holds that ‘new behaviours and practices, and 
ultimately new beliefs and understandings’ (Government of Ireland, 1999a, p. 62).
Fullan (1991) has written extensively on educational change and coined the phrase, 
‘change is a process, not an event’ and suggested that ‘educational change is technically 
simple and socially complex.’ Fullan (2001) also noted that ‘educational change 
depends on what teachers do and what teachers think – it’s as simple and as complex as 
that’ (p. 115). For some teachers change is a slow and uncertain process with some 
elements of teachers’ knowledge and practice more easily changed than others through 
professional development programmes (Franke, Carpenter, Levi & Fennema, 2001).
Avalos (2011) stated that cognitive theory and research have unveiled some of the 
factors, such as how the role of beliefs and the perceptions of self-efficacy can support 
or hinder change. From his research he found that diverse forms of professional 
development have effects of some kind but unfortunately we know little about the 
degree to which these efforts are sustained, though the more prolonged the professional 
development intervention the more effective.