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Computer Assisted Language Learning
ISSN: 0958-8221 (Print) 1744-3210 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ncal20
Preparing language teachers to teach language
online: a look at skills, roles, and responsibilities
Lily K.L. Compton
To cite this article:
Lily K.L. Compton (2009) Preparing language teachers to teach language
online: a look at skills, roles, and responsibilities, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22:1,
73-99, DOI: 10.1080/09588220802613831
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220802613831
Published online: 16 Jan 2009.
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Preparing language teachers to teach language online: a look at skills, roles,
and responsibilities
Lily K.L. Compton*
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Iowa State University, Iowa City, USA
(Received 15 May 2007; final version received 18 August 2008)
This paper reviews and critiques an existing skills framework for online language
teaching. This critique is followed by an alternative framework for online language
teaching skills. This paper also uses a systems view to look at the roles and
responsibilities of various stakeholders in an online learning system. Four major
recommendations are provided to help language teacher training programs prepare
future language teachers for online language teaching.
Keywords: online language teaching; skills; roles; responsibilities; language teacher
education; framework
Introduction
Online language learning has steadily increased in popularity over the last decade with the
growth of the internet and the proliferation of computers at home and in educational
settings ranging from K-12 to post-secondary (Felix, 2003a; Hubbard & Levy, 2006;
Stickler & Hauck, 2006a; White, 2003). White (2003) indicated that there were more than
1300 distance language courses from the 55,000 distant courses registered in 130 countries.
She added that the common perceptions of online courses as cost- and time-effective have
pushed more providers into the field of online language learning. While the notion of
language learning at a distance is not a new phenomenon, rapid developments in
communication technology have increased the demand for online language learning that
involves connection of learners, both asynchronously and synchronously as well as
autonomous learning.
The online context of language learning has prompted the need for new teaching
approaches and teaching skills that are different from those used in teaching face-to-face
language courses (Hampel & Stickler, 2005). These new teaching skills are crucial for
teaching online language courses ‘whose subject matter is communication’ and especially
at the lower level where there is a ‘need to focus on the form of interaction as well as the
content’ (Hampel & Stickler, 2005, p. 312). Additionally, it requires skills that are different
from teaching other subjects online. However, there seems to be little concerted effort in
this direction as the increase in online language learning has not been matched with an
*Email: lilycompton@yahoo.com
Computer Assisted Language Learning
Vol. 22, No. 1, February 2009, 73–99
ISSN 0958-8221 print/ISSN 1744-3210 online
Ó 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09588220802613831
http://www.informaworld.com
increase in teacher training for language teachers beyond the technical and software-
specific skills. Moreover, the vast research and best practices for teaching online may not
translate well for online language teaching.
Despite a multitude of research-based publications and best practices relating to
computer assisted language learning (CALL), including online language learning, there is
a dearth of resources on how to prepare teachers for online language teaching and the
skills needed for this new teaching environment. To date, no literature review has been
published specifically on the skills needed for online language teaching. This literature
review is therefore an effort to fill the gap by synthesising the existing but limited literature
and providing recommendations for teacher training programmes. However, before
proceeding in depth with the synthesis and recommendations, this literature review will
attempt to set the stage by presenting: 1) the current state of CALL and language teacher
preparation; and 2) the methodology used for the literature search.
It should be noted that for the purpose of this literature review, several references to
CALL will be included to frame the general discussion since online language learning is a
subset of this area and very little has been published specifically on online language
learning. In most cases, the references to CALL used in this review deal with the use of
technology over the internet, which relates closely to the online language learning
environment.
Current state of CALL and language teacher education
In a 2007 keynote address at a leading CALL conference, Hubbard (2008) shared that
CALL had increased its presence in second and foreign language teaching. He also
asserted that language teachers are ‘pivotal players . . . [for] the future of CALL [since]
they select the tools to support their teaching and determine what CALL applications
language learners are exposed to and how learners use them’ (p. 176).
Presently, a common approach to CALL in current language teacher education
programmes is to concentrate on the hardware and software issues rather than the
pedagogy. According to Kessler (2006), much of instructional technology preparation in
teacher training programmes focuses on digital literacy or software specific orientation.
These skills help teachers to use technology but do not prepare them to use technology for
language teaching. While there is a growing amount of literature that provides an overview
of CALL to teacher candidates, Hubbard (2008) reported that there is evidence of
language teachers graduating with little or no knowledge of the use of technology in
language teaching. Similarly, Abras and Sunshine (2008) and Jones and Youngs (2006,
p. 267) pointed out that teacher preparation in the United States for online, distance or
hybrid language courses is lacking. Abras and Sunshine also highlighted the incon-
sistencies in good practices and the lack of benchmarks for teacher training technology
standards as concerns for the field of language teacher education.
Meanwhile, Hubbard and Levy (2006) were concerned that language teachers would be
at a disadvantage if they are not adequately trained for CALL. As Hubbard (2007)
pointed out, 39% of the positions listed on 29 October 2005 on a TESOL career centre site
mentioned CALL or technology skills as required or desirable. The number jumped to
60% based on listed positions on the same site five months later on 22 March 2006
(Kessler, 2006). Clearly, CALL preparation is needed in language teacher education
programmes.
In a survey through CALL-related listservs, Kessler (2006) found that graduates of
TESOL programmes expressed general dissatisfaction with their formal CALL
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preparation. Of the 240 respondents 51% said their CALL training was ‘extremely
ineffective’ and 25% found it ‘somewhat ineffective’. Hubbard (2008) attributed the lack of
formal CALL training to reasons including limited CALL teacher educators, lack of
established methodology, insufficient infrastructure, standards, and time, as well as
unsupportive faculty who believed that technology training was an institutional
responsibility. Even though many teacher trainers have done work independently in the
area of CALL (Hubbard & Levy, 2006), Kessler (2006, p. 23) claimed that ‘formal
language teacher preparation programmes have largely neglected to equip their graduates
with the related knowledge and skills they need to enter today’s technologically advanced
language classroom’. In fact, only a shocking eight of 50 North American TESOL
graduate programmes (as indicated on their websites in 2004) had any mention of a CALL
component in their coursework and only three of these had a CALL course (Kessler,
2005). Kessler (2006) added that most teachers gained their CALL knowledge from
informal or self-study rather than instruction.
The assumption that a teacher who is good at teaching in a face-to-face class can easily
jump in and teach in this new medium is a common myth (Davis & Rose, 2007; Wood,
2005). Easton’s (2003) study of skills needed by distance learning instructors showed the
need for the online instructor to have a paradigm shift in perceptions of instructional time
and space, virtual management techniques and ways of engaging students through virtual
communications in addition to the communication skills already required for general
effective classroom teaching. Additionally, Hampel and Stickler (2005) noted that online
language teachers not only needed different skills from those of traditional language
teachers in face-to-face classrooms but also different skills from online teachers of other
subjects. The lack of non-verbal clues in audio conferencing, for example, can be very
challenging for online language teachers. Clearly, CALL teacher preparation needs to
improve if we want the new generation of language teachers to be prepared for teaching in
online environments. This literature review attempts to provide recommended steps for
language teacher education programmes based on identified skills needed for online
language teaching. The next section outlines the methodology used to identify relevant and
quality resources for the identification of such skills.
Literature search methodology
The areas of CALL, technology for language learning, and language teacher education
have been greatly researched. However, research on effective preparation for online
language teachers is scarce. Due to the limited publication pertinent to the topic of teacher
education and online language teaching, the search for relevant literature became an
exploration into three major disciplines: CALL, online/distance education and teacher
education. Using a methodology resembling a qualitative data analysis, this literature
search involved iterative cycles of data collection, analysis and synthesis. Key publications
dealing closely with the topic of this literature review (Chapelle & Hegelheimer, 2004;
Hampel & Stickler, 2005; Stickler & Hauck, 2006a; Jones & Youngs, 2006) were used as
the starting point. These articles were used to identify important skills needed for online
language teaching. Additionally, relevant books (Felix, 2003b; Hubbard & Levy, 2006)
and special publication issues (CALICO Monograph Series (2008), Vol. 7; CALICO
Journal
(2006) 23(3); Language Learning & Technology (2003), 7(3) (Glew, 2003) were
identified in the first round to provide a general insight into this topic.
In the second round of review, critiques and ideas gleaned from prominent CALL
specialists through related books and articles were also used to support and elaborate on
Computer Assisted Language Learning
75
the list of skills identified from the first round of review as there were limited research-
based articles related to teacher training and online language learning. Searches for articles
(print and online) selected and reviewed for this cycle were conducted using the ERIC
online data base with various combinations of keywords (keywords: CALL, teacher
education, distance education, online education, language learning, literature review)
without the year restriction as well as a methodical manual search of individual issues in
leading and reputable journals (e.g. CALICO Journal, CALL Journal, Language Learning
& Technology
). Because instructional technology is constantly evolving, the manual search
of articles was limited to those published between 2000 and early 2008 to ensure that the
most relevant issues in teaching CALL were covered. Additional relevant references
gathered from the key publications from the first cycle were also reviewed in this round.
Although literature in the general area of online teaching and CALL is widely
available, there are very limited resources specifically for the preparation of language
teachers for online language teaching. This literature review is an attempt to address the
scarcity of resources in the mentioned area by synthesising research and thought pieces
from CALL, online and distance education and teacher education. This paper now
presents its main discussion starting with a review of an online language teaching skills
pyramid and a critique of the framework.
Skills for online language teaching
Chapelle and Hegelheimer (2004) stressed the need to clarify the key competences of
language teachers in the twenty-first century to ‘effectively and critically engage in
technology-related teaching issues . . . within a world that is decisively supported and
interconnected by technology’ (p. 300). Clarification of key competences is crucial for
online language teacher training, since teaching language online requires skills that differ
from traditional language teaching as well as teaching other subjects online. In this section,
this literature review will look at the type of skills for online language teaching. In the first
part, Hampel and Stickler’s (2005) paper as introduced earlier provides a framework to
discuss the types of skills needed for online language teaching. In the second part, I will
provide a critique of the pyramid and recommend a modified framework for online
language teaching skills. Since research from the European context will be used to inform
this literature review, the term ‘tutors’ will be used interchangeably with the United States
(US) equivalent, ‘teachers’ or ‘instructors’.
Types of skills
In this sub-section, Hampel and Stickler’s (2005) paper is used to frame the discussion of
skills needed for online language teaching, since their paper was the first clear effort on the
topic of teacher training for online language learning. Because few research-based articles
relating to the training of online language teachers were located, non research-based
literature was also used to provide supporting evidence for the skills discussed in this
section.
According to Hampel and Stickler (2005), teaching language online requires skills that
are different from those used to teach language in face-to-face classrooms. It is also
different from teaching other subjects online. It requires more than just the knowledge of
‘which buttons to press in order to send an email or which HTML coding is required to
insert an image on a web page’ (Bennett & Marsh, 2002, p. 14). Bennett and Marsh
identified two important pieces of knowledge beyond the technical level: (a) to ‘identify the
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significant difference and similarities between face-to-face and online learning and
teaching contexts,’ and (b) to ‘identify strategies and techniques to facilitate online
learning and help students exploit the advantages in relation to both independent and
collaborative learning’ (p. 16). Besides that, community building skills to encourage
socialisation, active participation and collaboration are equally important for online
teaching (Jones & Youngs, 2006; Hampel & Stickler, 2005; McLoughlin & Oliver, 1999).
Based on their years of teaching languages synchronously in an online environment
and experience in the training of online tutors, Hampel and Stickler (2005) attempted to
identify the key competences of an online language tutor. They presented a pyramid of
skills (Figure 1) with seven key competences ranging from lower level skills (e.g. basic
ICT competence, specific technical and software competence and awareness of constraints
and possibilities) to higher level skills (e.g. online socialisation, facilitation of commu-
nicative competence as well as creativity, choice and selection). They said that the online
language teaching skills needed to ‘build on one another in a kind of pyramid, from the
most general skills forming a fairly broad base to an apex of individual and personal styles’
(p. 316).
The first level of skills for an online tutor relates to technological skills. This includes
the ability to deal with basic equipment such as a keyboard, mouse, soundcards, and
headsets, as well as familiarity with common problems with ISP connections, firewall,
internet browsers, plug-ins, etc. Chapelle and Hegelheimer (2004) added that the ability to
troubleshoot basic browser problems was also important since most information is
accessed through a browser interface. They advocated training through computer methods
courses. The competence to use networked computers and the familiarity with basic
applications are skills that have become prerequisites for effective online language teaching
(Hampel & Sticker, 2005) and the general twenty-first century language teacher (Chapelle
& Hegelheimer, 2004). These skills are often taken for granted and commonly left to the
Figure 1.
Skills pyramid (Hampel & Stickler, 2005, p. 317).
Computer Assisted Language Learning
77
teachers to learn on their own, especially since there is a limited amount of time to cover
everything else.
The second level of skill is to use specific software applications to teach languages
online. These applications may include commercial software purchased by the institution
(e.g. webCT, Wimba, or Elluminate) and/or freeware and open source (e.g. Yahoo
Messenger, Skype or Moodle). Additionally, online teachers need to know a range of
applications, from course management software (CMS) to applications that specifically
facilitate CALL activities and provide students with a range of communication
opportunities. Chapelle and Hegelheimer (2004) specifically noted the importance of
knowing how to use communication tools such as ‘chat rooms, bulletin boards, e-mail,
and electronic mailing lists’ to support the learners’ communicative competence through
computer-mediated technologies in the area of language learning (p. 308). Additionally,
the latest technologies have made it easier and more affordable for teaching languages via
audio and video conferencing. Skype and Yahoo Messenger, for example, offer free audio-
video conferencing, while webcams and headsets with microphones are cheap and can be
easily purchased online or in stores.
However, knowing how to use the specific software applications is not enough. The
third level of skills requires the online language teacher to understand the affordances and
constraints of the specific applications. For instance, free software is plentiful but each has
its strengths and drawbacks. ICQ, an example of free synchronous chat software, can be
downloaded in different languages such as Arabic, Swedish, Dutch, French, Chinese and
Spanish (Compton, 2004). This is an extremely useful communication tool for online
language learning since it supports different language scripts. However, Compton warned
practitioners that their students may receive unsolicited messages and chat invitations
from other ICQ users even though they are not on the student’s list, because ICQ is an
open chat channel. These unsolicited messages and invitations may interrupt the task and
could possibly pose as safety threats, especially for younger learners. Teachers, however,
can avoid them by having their students switch to the ‘invisible mode’ after they have
established connections with their assigned learning partners.
The fourth level of skills relate to online socialisation. The quality of interpersonal
interaction relies on the sense of community that has been established (Palloff & Pratt,
1999; Salmon, 2003). A sense of trust is particularly relevant in beginners’ language
courses because learners often feel very insecure and unable to express themselves. Hampel
and Stickler (2005) believed that extra care should be taken to foster positive online
socialisation and community so learners will not be afraid to be active participants. They
added that socialisation and community building in an online environment require skills
that are very different from face-to-face classroom, so that even ‘the most jovial and well-
liked tutor of face-to-face courses’ cannot automatically become a successful online
teacher (p. 318). Additionally, Davis and Rose (2007) warned that miscommunication in
an online community can lead to tension. They stated that online teachers should have
good communication skills, and that these are even more critical for online environments
due to the lack of visual cues. Jones and Youngs (2006) added that online teachers also
need to know how to stimulate active participation and collaboration because they can
facilitate online socialisation and even help to maintain students’ interest in the subject
matter and learning.
The literature contains a number of studies that support the importance of community
in online language learning. A study on networked collaboration between non-native
speakers (NNSs) of Spanish and native speakers (NSs) of Spanish in the US by Lee (2004)
showed that language proficiency affected the quality of online negotiations and students’
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motivation. The goal of the collaboration was to provide the NNSs with opportunities to
use the target language outside the classroom, while the NSs gained experience with online
technologies as part of their course requirements. No effort was made to establish
community between these two groups of learners prior to their task-based interactions.
Survey results of the NNSs learners showed that the NNSs experienced anxiety and
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