in Africa, the New Guinea area, and the Americas, and by that of Russian
scholars on Kartvelian, Caucasian, and other families of the former Soviet
Union. Before all this work appeared, in recent decades, it was difficult, if
not impossible, for a taxonomist to be sure that a root was truly diagnostic
of some family, simply because there was no understanding of what the valid
genetic families were, much less what cognates defined them. Trombetti, for
example, dealt in terms of languages only where he was forced to by a lack
of any general overall classification. Wherever possible, he worked with es-
tablished language families (e.g. Indo-European, Uralic, Bantu), since he was
well aware of the unavoidable methodological quandary presented by poorly
documented families.
We harbor no illusions, of course, that every etymological connection we
propose will be found, ultimately, to be correct, but we do believe that the
removal of such errors as may exist in these etymologies will not seriously
affect the basic hypothesis, which does not depend on any specific link for its
validity. Furthermore, the number of widespread etymologies can be vastly
increased over the fragment we present here. In the long run we expect the
evidence for monogenesis of extant languages to become so compelling that
the question will be not whether all the world’s languages are related, but
why it took the linguistic community so long to recognize this obvious fact.
1 AJA ‘mother, older female relative’
Khoisan:
=Au.//eˆı ai ‘female, mother,’ !Kung ÷ai ‘mother’; Naron ai, Hadza
aija
∼ aijako ‘mother, grandmother, aunt’; /’Auni aija ‘mother.’ [
BD 6
]
Niger-Congo:
Temne -ja ‘mother,’ Bulom ja, Yoruba ija; Bantu: Proto-
Bantu *j´ıj`
a
∼ *j´ıj`o. [
BA IV: 190
]
Nilo-Saharan:
Saharan: Daza aja ‘mother,’ Kanembu jia
∼ ja, Kanuri ja;
Fur ija; Maban: Runga ja; Koman: Gumuz ijo; Central Sudanic: Mang-
betu aja, Madi ia, Lombi jaija; East Sudanic: Gulfan aja, Midob ija, Suk
iju, Nyangiya joijao ‘thy mother.’ [
NS 95, CN 67, ES 77, NSD 43
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Omotic: Wolamo aj¯e ‘mother’; Cushitic: Oromo ajo, Somali
hoojo; Chadic: Kotoko ¯ıja
∼ ija ∼ ja, Mubi ´ıj`a. [
WM 64
]
Dravidian:
Tamil ¯
aj
∼ ˜aji ∼ jaj ‘mother,’ ¯aj¯al. ‘mother, grandmother,’ Kan-
nada ¯
aji ‘mother,’ Kolami aj, Parji ajal ‘woman, wife,’ ija ‘mother,’ Gadba
aja ‘mother,’ ajal ‘woman, wife,’ Gondi ajal ‘mother,’ Konda aja, Pengo
14. Global Etymologies
293
aja
∼ ija, Manda aja, Kui aia ∼ aja ∼ ija, Kuwi ¯ıja ‘mother,’ aja ‘woman,’
Kurux ajaÑg
∼ ajo ‘mother,’ Malto a¯ja ‘my mother.’ [
D 364, NSD 43
]
Burushaski
-äi ‘daughter, girl.’ [
B 455
]
?Indo-Pacific:
Isabi aijo ‘mother,’ Korafe aja. [FS 99]
Nahali
aji ‘husband’s younger sister.’ [
NA 59
]
Austroasiatic:
Munda: Sora ajaÑ-tsòr ‘bitch’ (= female-dog, cf. kin-tsòr
‘male dog’); Mon-Khmer: Proto-Mon-Khmer *ja÷ ‘grandmother.’ [
PB 482,
SB 34
]
Miao-Yao:
Proto-Yao *ja ‘father’s sister.’ [
PB 339
]
Daic:
Tai: Proto-Tai *ja ‘father’s mother’; Sek ja; Kam-Sui: Proto-Kam-
Sui *ja ‘grandmother,’ Sui ja ‘grandmother, old woman’; Li: Proto-Li *ja
‘mother, grandmother,’ Small Cloth Loi ja ‘mother’; Lakkia jë ‘grand-
mother.’ [
PB 339
]
Austronesian:
Proto-Austronesian *‘ajah ‘father,’ Atayal jaja÷ ‘mother,’
Pazeh jah ‘older sister,’ Malay ’ajah ‘father,’ Javanese (j)ajah ‘father.’
[
AN 13, WW 74, PB 339
]
Amerind:
Penutian: North Sahaptin ´
ajaD ‘woman,’ Nez Perce ÷ajat, Tzotzil
jaja ‘grandmother’; Hokan: Washo -ja ‘paternal aunt,’ Quinigua ÷jaak,
Tonkawa ÷ejan ‘woman’s sister’; Central Amerind: Tewa jia ‘mother,’
Proto-Oto-Manguean *ja ‘female,’ Proto-Uto-Aztecan *je ‘mother,’ Tara-
humara ije, Yaqui ÷aije, Nahua -je÷; Chibchan-Paezan: Xinca aja ‘woman,’
Matagalpa joaja, Cuna jaa-kwa ‘young woman,’ Colorado aja ‘mother’;
Andean: Ona joj ‘grandmother,’ Auca -j ˜
æj ˜
æ; Macro-Tucanoan: Amaguaje
ajo ‘old woman,’ Masaka jaja ‘older sister,’ Ticuna jake ‘old woman’;
Equatorial: Mapidiana aja ‘aunt,’ Tora ije ‘paternal grandmother,’ Arikem
haja ‘aunt’; Macro-Panoan: Mayoruna jaja, Shipibo jaja ‘paternal aunt,’
Moseten eje ‘grandmother,’ jaja ‘mother-in-law’; Macro-Carib: Accawai
aja ‘mother’; Macro-Ge: Coropo ajan, Coroado ajan, Palmas j˜
a. [
CA 55,
AMN
]
2 BU(N)KA ‘knee, to bend’
Niger-Congo:
Baga -buÑ ‘knee,’ Pajade -paÑ, ?Lefana -Ñko; Bantu: Proto-
Bantu *b´
oÑg´
o, Swahili bong’oa ‘to stoop, bend down.’ [
BA III: 57
]
Kordofanian:
Tegele mbo ‘knee’ (pl. abo.an ∼ abuaÑ). [
VB
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Omotic: Dime boq ‘knee,’ Bako boγa, Basketo buk.a, Oyde
bunk.e; Chadic: Fyer fuÑ ‘knee,’ Bura b.unji ‘knee.’ [
VB
]
Indo-European:
Proto-Indo-European *bheug(h) ‘to bend’; Indic: Sanskrit
bhugn´
a ‘bent’; Germanic: Gothic biugan ‘to bend,’ Old Icelandic bogenn
‘bent,’ English bow, elbow; Celtic: Proto-Celtic *buggo ‘flexible, mal-
leable,’ Irish bog ‘soft’; Albanian but¨e (< bhug(h)-to) ‘soft’; Baltic: Lat-
vian ba˜
ugurs ‘hill, rising ground.’ [
IE 152, N 25
]
294
14. Global Etymologies
Turkic:
Proto-Turkic *b¨
uk(¨
a)
∼ *b¨ok(¨a) ‘to bend,’ Chuvash p˘ek ∼ p˘¨ ok ‘to
bend,’ Yakut b¨
uk, Khakas b¨
ukri ‘bent,’ Old Uighur b¨
uk
∼ b¨ok ‘to twist,’
Uighur b¨
uk
∼ b¨ok ‘to kneel.’ [
N 25
]
Mongolian:
Proto-Mongolian *b¨
oke ‘to bend,’ Written Mongolian b¨
okeji
∼
b¨
ok¨
oji ‘to cave in, sag’ b¨
oken ‘hump of a camel,’ b¨
ok¨
ot¨
ur ‘bent,’ Khalkha
b ˙ox( ˙on) ‘hump of a camel,’ Kalmyk b¨
okn‹ ‘hump, humped.’ [
N 25
]
Tungus:
Proto-Tungus *b¨
ok(¨
a) ‘to bend,’ Manchu buk(-da), Nanai bukun
‘hump,’ Evenki buk¨
a ‘to bow,’ buku ‘bent, crooked,’ b¨
ak¨
a ‘hump.’ [
N 25
]
Ainu
he-poki-ki ‘bow down,’ he-poki-poki ‘to nod the head.’
Indo-Pacific:
Halmahera: Tobelo buku ‘knee,’ Modole bubuqu, Loda wuwu-
ku; Bougainville: Koianu poku; South New Guinea: Teri Kawalsch bugu;
Northeast New Guinea: Saker bakbakan. [
IP 43
]
Australian:
Proto-Australian *puÑku ‘knee,’ Tyeraity b¨
oÑg¨
ol, Maranunggu
biÑgar, Guugu Yimidhir buÑgu, Kok-Nar poÑk
∼ p´uÑkuw´al, Gugu-Badh-
un buÑguyal, Kukatj poÑkìpal, Dyirbal buÑgu ‘knee, bend in the river,
wave,’ Yidiny buÑgu ‘knee, hump in a snake’s body.’ [
NP 232, RD 110, 123,
223
]
Amerind:
Proto-Algonquian: *w¯
ak- ‘bend,’ Blackfoot woxos ‘shin’ (from an
earlier meaning of ‘knee,’ as seen in Maidu pok’´
osi), Bella Bella wak-
‘bent,’ Crow iˇsbaxe ‘elbow,’ Hidatsa iˇspah.i ‘elbow,’ Caddo buko ‘knee’;
Penutian: Tfalatik pòsq ‘bow’ (with metathesis, from earlier *pòqVs),
Kalapuya oposqú ‘bow’ (with metathesis), Maidu pok’´
osi ‘knee,’ Nisenan
p’ëkkasi ‘elbow,’ Zuni po÷ku ‘to fold,’ Texistepec boka ‘elbow,’ Pokonchi
bak ‘crooked,’ Sierra Popoluca pikˇsi ‘bow,’ Mixe kupokˇs ‘elbow’; Hokan:
Shasta ÷iˇcipka ‘knee,’ Achomawi lupu÷isi ‘bow,’ Chumash sibuk
∼ ˇsipuk
‘elbow,’ Walapai mipuk ‘knee,’ ph´
u÷ ‘bow’; Central Amerind: Varohia
ˇcopokori ‘knee’; Chibchan-Paezan: Guamaca buka ‘knee, elbow,’ Rama
buk ‘twist,’ Atanque buk¨
uh-k¨
ona ‘knee,’ Warrao oboka ‘elbow,’ Colorado
te-bunga ‘elbow,’ Cayapa ne-bumbuka ‘knee,’ Chimu ˇc’epuk; Andean:
Jebero p¨
oktenja ‘bow,’ Ona epekten ‘elbow,’ Alakaluf kolpakar ‘knee’;
Macro-Tucanoan: Iranshe poku ‘bow (n.),’ Proto-Nambikwara *pako
‘crooked,’ *pok ‘bow (n.)’; Equatorial: Paumari amabokoi ‘elbow,’ Guara-
˜
noca pok`
a ‘bow,’ Cuiva tab´
oko ‘knee,’ Palicur ubowγi, Karif bugunuge
‘elbow’; Macro-Carib: Miranha th¨
uboqua ‘bow,’ Apiaca topkat; Macro-
Panoan: Mayoruna mupukuˇsau ‘elbow,’ Panobo wa÷puˇsko ‘elbow’ (with
metathesis), Sapiboca embako ‘elbow,’ Tiatinagua waku; Macro-Ge:
Mohaˇcobm pokai ‘bow,’ Umotina boika, Bororo boiga, Opaie ˇci-ˇ
pege-ri
‘elbow.’ [
AM 157, MT 16, AMN
]
14. Global Etymologies
295
3 BUR ‘ashes, dust’
Nilo-Saharan:
Songhai: Gao bonni ‘ashes,’ Djerma boron; Berta bub(u)÷da;
Central Sudanic: Bongo buru-ku, Keliko òfòrago; East Sudanic: Kenzi,
Birgid u-burti, Murle b¯
ur, Mursi búrr, Bal´e búr, Shilluk, Bor bur, Lango
buru, Alur burru. [
NS 9, CN 7, ES 5, NSD 6, NSB
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *b(w)rH ‘loose soil, sand, dust’; Semitic:
Proto-Semitic *br ‘dust,’ Arabic baraj ‘dust, soil,’ Mehri ber¯
or ‘sandy
seashore,’ Classical Hebrew bar ‘field, open space,’ Proto-Semitic *bwr
‘(fallow) ground,’ Arabic bawr ‘fallow ground,’ Syriac b¯
ur¯
o, Akkadian
b¯
aru ‘open space’; ?Berber: Shilha tamurt ‘soil’; Cushitic: Beja b¯
ur ‘soil,’
Bilin bir¯
a ‘soil,’ Saho bar.o, Afar bal.¯o, Somali bèrri; Chadic: Proto-Chadic
*’bwr ‘sand,’ Angas ’bur ‘sand, dust,’ Logone b´
¯
ur´
a, Gider burduku ‘soil.’
[
CS 398, N 22
]
Kartvelian:
Svan burγw ‘to raise dust,’ birγw (< *burγw-i) ‘dust, ashes,’
?Middle Georgian bre. [
N 22
]
Uralic:
Proto-Uralic (Illich-Svitych) *porV ‘dust, sand, dirt’; Samoyed: Ka-
massian p¨
ure ‘sand’; Ugric: Ostyak per ‘ashes’; Finnic: Finnish poro ‘hot
ashes, course dust,’ Estonian pori ‘mud,’ Mansi pors ‘sweepings.’ [
U 68,
N 22
]
Dravidian:
Proto-Dravidian *p¯
ur£
V
∼ *por£V ‘loose soil, sand, dust,’ Malto
porsi ‘sweepings,’ Naikri bur.di ‘ash,’ Telugu b¯ud.ida ‘ashes,’ Tulu poyy`e
‘sand,’ Malayalam pur£
uti ‘dust, earth,’ p¯
uyi ‘sand,’ Tamil pur£
uti ‘dust,
dry earth,’ p¯
ur£
i ‘powder, dust.’ [
D 4316, N 22, NSD 6
]
Turkic:
Proto-Turkic *b¯
or, Chuvash pur(˘
a) ‘chalk,’ Tuva por ‘clay,’ Jakut
buor ‘soil, clay, dust,’ Altai pur ‘ashes,’ Uighur bor, Kazakh bor ‘chalk.’
[
N 22
]
Mongolian:
Khalkha bur ‘dirty, muddy, dark,’ Buriat bur ‘silt, swamp,
clay.’ [
N 22
]
Tungus:
Manchu buraki ‘dust, sand,’ Nanai bur¨
axin ‘dust,’ Oroch bur¨
axi.
[
N 22
]
?Eskimo-Aleut:
Proto-Eskimo-Aleut *pujV
∼ *apju ‘dust, mud, soot.’ [
EA
]
Burushaski
bur-di ‘the ground.’
?Indo-Pacific:
Tasmanian b¯
urana ‘smoke.’
Australian:
Proto-Australian *burin
∼ *burinj ‘smoke.’ [
AC 75
]
Amerind:
Chibchan-Paezan: Cuna piru ‘ashes,’ Uncasica bura, Manare oka-
bora, Move ˜
nio-bru, Guatuso purun, Catio pora ‘dust’; Andean: Lu-
paca purka ‘ashes’; Equatorial: Shuara pupuur ‘dust,’ Bare baridi ‘ashes,’
Wapishana parati, Goajiro purpura ‘dust’; Macro-Panoan: Taruma gula-
paru ‘powder’; Macro-Carib: Yagua pup¯
andru ‘ashes’; Macro-Ge: Proto-
Ge *prë ‘ashes,’ Krenje pro, Cayapo pra ‘embers,’ Guato (ma-)fora(-ta)
‘ashes,’ Caraja br¯ıbi. [
AM 11, AMN
]
296
14. Global Etymologies
4 ˇ
CUN(G)A ‘nose; to smell’
Khoisan:
=Au.//eˆı ˇc’˜u ‘nose,’ !Kung t
s
’´
˜
u
∼ s´˜ u, !O-!Kung t
s
n
∼ ˇcn; G//abake
ˇcui, Naron s˜
o ‘to snuff,’ Nama suni ‘sniff, smell from’; /Xam s˜
u ‘snore,’
//Ng-!’e s˜
u÷wa ‘blow the nose,’ Kakia /nuha ˇcuni ‘nostrils.’ [
K 89, SAK
488, 489, HF 1:10
]
Nilo-Saharan:
Saharan: Zagawa sina ‘nose,’ Berti sano; East Sudanic: Mei-
dob i-siÑi ‘nose,’ Ongamo (a-ta-)síÑa ‘to sneeze,’ Ik sik’wa ‘to sneeze’;
Central Sudanic: Shabo ˇcona
∼ ˇsona ‘nose.’ [
NSB, KER, HF 12
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *t
¯
(w)n
∼ *t
¯
(j)n ‘smell; Ancient Egyptian
´sn ‘to smell,’ ´sn´sn ‘to breathe’; Omotic: Proto-Omotic *sin-t ‘nose,’ Bas-
keto sinc.a, Chara sind.¯a, Gimira sint, Mao ˇsinto; Cushitic: Burgi suna,
Konso sona, Tambaro sana, Somali san, Kaffa ˇcinno ‘odor,’ Saho s¯ın ‘to
smell’; Chadic: Hausa s´
uns`
un¯
a
∼ s´ans`an¯a ‘to smell,’ Bachama ˇsine, Bata
ˇcinne, Klesem siÑ, Bana ˇcinan, Dari ˇsin. [
AA 54, N 51, HF 1:10
]
Kartvelian:
Georgian sun ‘odor, to smell.’ [
N 51
]
Indo-European:
Proto-Indo-European *sn¯
a ‘to flow, dampness, nose’; Ger-
manic: Proto-Germanic *snu ‘to smell, nose,’ Swedish snus ‘snuff,’ snuva
‘runny nose,’ German snau ‘snout, beak,’ Old Icelandic snoppe ‘to snuff,’
Norwegian sn¯
ut ‘nose,’ English ‘snout, sniff’; Baltic: Lithuanian snukkis
‘snout.’ [
IE 971
]
Uralic:
Proto-Uralic (Illich-Svitych) *ˇc¨
uÑV ‘to smell, odor, smoke,’ (R´edei)
*´saÑk ‰ ‘smell, taste’; Samoyed: Nenets t
¨
u´
n¯e
∼ ti´n¯e ‘to smell’; Ugric:
Vogul seeÑkw ‘mist, vapor’; Finnic: Votyak ˇcyÑ
∼ ˇsyÑ ‘smoke,’ Zyrian
ˇcyn ‘smoke,’ ?Finnish henki ‘breath, spirit.’ [
U 97, N 51, KR 462
]
Dravidian:
Tamil cun.t.u ‘bill, beak,’ Malayalam cun.t.u ‘beak, lips, snout,’
Kannada cun.d.u ‘a bird’s beak,’ Parji cond. ‘mouth, beak,’ Pengo cond.i
‘beak of a bird,’ Kui sud.a ‘mouth, beak,’ Kuwi hond.i ‘mouth.’ [
D 2664
]
Caucasian:
Proto-Caucasian *sHwi
¯
Int’ ‘to smell, snot,’ Proto-Avar-Andi
*¯s
w
int’V ‘to smell, snuff,’ Avar ¯sunt’ ‘snuff,’ sunt’(-ize) ‘to smell,’ Dargi
sunt’ ‘scent, odor,’ Lak ¯sunt’ ‘snuff,’ Proto-Lezghian *¯s
w
iInt’ ‘snot,’ Tsaxur
suInt’ ‘snot,’ ?Hurrian sunA ‘breath, soul.’ [
HF 1:10, C 190
]
Basque
su-dur ‘nose,’ sun-da ‘smell.’
Burushaski
ˇs.¯uÑ (ètäs) ∼ ˇs¯˜ u (ètäs) ‘to smell.’ [
B 335
]
Sino-Tibetan:
Karen suÑ ‘odor’; Tibeto-Burman: Proto-Tibeto-Burman
*sVna ‘nose,’ *suÑ ‘smell,’ Tibetan sna, bsuÑ ‘smell (sweet),’ Nung sëna,
Janggali sina, Digaro hëna(-gam), Burmese hna, s`
aÑ ‘emit a pleasant
odor.’ [
ST 101, 405, HF 1:10
]
Na-Dene:
Haida s´
anjuu ‘smell,’ s¯ınaÑ ‘sniffling’; Tlingit ˇcán ‘stench’; Eyak
ˇc˜
ah
∼ ˇc˜a÷ ‘stink’; Athabaskan: Proto-Athabaskan *-ˇcin-¬ ‘nose,’ Galice
ˇsan
∼ ˇs˜a˜a ‘smell,’ Kato ˇcën ‘smell.’ [
ND
]
14. Global Etymologies
297
Indo-Pacific:
Baruya sìnna ‘nose,’ Musak sinami- ‘to smell.’ [
FS 105
]
Nahali
ˇc¯
on ‘nose.’ [
NA
]
Miao-Yao:
Miao tsinyu ‘nose,’ Yao (pu-)tsoN. [
HF 1:10
]
Daic:
Ong Be zoÑ ‘nose,’ suÑ (mu) ‘to blow the nose’ (= to-blow [nose-
mucus]). [
PB 345
]
Austronesian:
Proto-Austronesian *iˇ
guÑ
∼ *uˇguÑ ‘nose,’ Kuvalan uˇguÑ,
Proto-Philippine *suÑaD, Proto-Oceanic *isu(Ñ)
∼ *untsu(Ñ), Fijian utsu,
Proto-Polynesian *isu; Proto-Austronesian *t
uÑal. ∼ *suNar ‘to sneer,
turn up the nose.’ [
AN 67, 158; WW 139, 227; PB 345
]
Amerind:
Almosan-Keresiouan: Seneca ÷os¯
˜
en˜
o÷ ‘smell,’ Chiwere s˜ıÑe, Tutelo
s˜
uw ‘stink’; Penutian: Wintu sono ‘nose,’ Chukchansi sinik’, Gashowu s¯ın-
wiyi ‘to blow the nose,’ Yokuts s.¯enit.’ ‘smell,’ Yaudanchi senk’a ‘smell,’
Huave ˇsink ‘nose,’ Santa Cruz suunta ‘snot,’ Lake Miwok s.in- ‘blow the
nose,’ Central Sierra Miwok s¯eÑ-aH ‘smelly thing’; Central Amerind:
Tewa s˜
u ‘smell,’ Kiowa s˜e, Proto-Central Otomi *ˇsi˜
n˜
u ‘nose,’ South Pame
ˇsinyˆ
u; Chibchan-Paezan: Atanque sun-k¨
ona ‘beak,’ Binticua misun-a
‘nose,’ Move inson, Colorado sin, Timicua ˇcini; Andean: Sek ˇcuna, Leco
(bi-)ˇcinua, Proto-Quechuan *sinqa; Macro-Tucanoan: Ubde-Nehern ˇcin-
uehei ‘smell,’ Yuri ˇcunama; Equatorial: Campa asanki-ro, Callahuaya ˇcini
‘nose,’ Caranga ˇconanˇ
ga ‘stink.’ [
AK 175, CP 133, A 79, 106, AMN
]
5 KAMA ‘hold (in the hand)’
Khoisan:
Zhu xo’m(-x´ei) ‘rub back and forth’; Kxoe xˆ
om ‘crush with the
hands.’ [
SAK 852
]
Niger-Congo:
Dagomba kam ‘squeeze,’ Nupe k˜
a, Proto-Bantu *kama, Swa-
hili kama ‘to squeeze, to milk,’ kama-ta ‘to take hold, seize, grasp.’
[
KS 59, BA III: 263
]
?Nilo-Saharan:
Songhai kaÑkam ‘squeeze’ (< *kamkam ?). [
KS 59
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *km ‘seize, take, squeeze’; Semitic: Akka-
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