Approaches to Disposal of Nuclear Waste Michael I. Ojovan

Table 4. 
Engineered barrier systems (EBS) components of actual or planned geological dis-
posal/storage facilities. 
Country 
Waste 
Wasteform 
Container 
Backfill 
Belgium 
HLW 
Glass
Stainless steel
Clay, Bentonite, 
Quartz sand, Graphite 
SNF
SNF 
Steel 
Canada
SNF
SNF 
Carbon steel, Copper
Bentonite, Sand, Clay, 
Crashed rock
China 
HLW 
Glass 
Stainless steel 
Bentonite 
Czech Republic 
ILW
Concrete
Steel 
Bentonite 
HLW
Glass
SNF 
SNF 
Finland 
SNF 
SNF 
Copper, Iron 
Bentonite, Crushed 
host rock 
France 
ILW 
Various
Stainless steel, Con-
crete
Concrete lining
HLW 
Glass 
Stainless steel, Steel
Bentonite
SNF 
SNF 
Stainless steel
Bentonite, Disposal 
tube
Germany 
1
LILW 
Not considered as EBS Not considered as EBS 
Salt concrete
Japan
HLW 
Glass
Carbon steel
Bentonite, Sand
Korea 
SNF 
SNF 
Steel, Copper,
Bentonite, Sand
Russia 
HLW 
Glass 
Steel, Stainless steel Bentonite, Concrete
Spain
SNF 
SNF 
Carbon steel 
Bentonite 
Sweden
SNF 
SNF 
Copper, Iron
Bentonite
Switzerland
HLW 
Glass
Steel
Bentonite
UK 
LILW 
Cement 
Steel, Concrete 
Cement based
US 
TRU 
2
/WIPP 
3
Various
Steel
MgO

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Energies
2022
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 15
, 7804 
13 of 24 
SNF/YMP 
4
SNF 
Stainless steel, Ni-
based alloy 
- 
HLW/YMP 
Glass
Stainless steel 
- 
1
Morsleben; 
2
Transuranic waste; 
3
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant,; 
4
Yucca Mountain Plant (Nevada). 
SNF disposal at the YMP was halted during the Obama administration with Blue Ribbon Commis-
sion assigned and tasked with the development of a perspective for the NWM in the US. 
Table 5. 
Functions of the wasteform (immobilising matrix) and container components of EBS. 
Country 
Wasteform 
Container 
Belgium 
10,000 y resistance to leaching
Facilitate handling
Canada
10,000 y radionuclide retention
100,000 y containment
Czech Republic 
10,000 y radionuclide retention
500–1000 y containment
Finland
Slow rate of release
100,000 y containment
France
100,000 y resistance
Facilitate handling
Germany 
1
Not part of EBS
Not part of EBS
Japan
>10,000 y containment and slow re-
lease
1000 y containment, creating 
reducing conditions
Korea
Resistance to leaching
1000 y containment
Spain
Slow rate of release
1000 y containment
Sweden (KBS-3)
Slow rate of release
100,000 y isolation
Switzerland
150,000 y low release
Initial period complete con-
tainment
UK (Nirex, RWM) 
300–500 y limit release
300–500 y physical integrity, 
limit release
US
WIPP: Not part of EBS; YMP: reduce 
release rate
WIPP: Not part of EBS; YMP: 
>10,000 y resistance to corro-
sion 
1
Morsleben. 
4.3. Delay of Radionuclide Release 
The EBS of GDF has a finite lifetime and its role is to minimise and significantly delay 
the release of radionuclides into the geological formation. Durable materials are therefore 
preferred for EBS including the wasteform and container materials (see, e.g., Figure 6b). 
Based on known corrosion rates of EBS materials in each specific case (
r
, m/y), it is possible 
to estimate their lifetimes 
t
EBS
from the equation 
t
EBS
 = L
EBS
/r 
(5)
where 
L
EBS
is the critical dimension of barrier, e.g., the wall thickness of the container (

10 
mm) or vitreous wasteform block half-diameter (

20 cm). Figure 7 illustrates currently 
available estimates of initial rates of corrosion and residual (steady state rates in saturated 
conditions when the material is confined in contact with its corrosion products) of durable 
ceramics, glasses, and corrosion-resistant metallic alloys [33]. 

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Energies