Azərbaycan Respublikası “ÇAĞ” Öyrətim İşlətmələri

Key words: Theme, Thematic Structure (T structure). 
SUMMARY 
According to systematic functional grammar model; language is said to fulfill 
three functions: the ideational macrofunction, the interpersonal macrofunction, the 
textual macrofunction. The textual function is as it is the focus of this study, express 
the discoursal meaning by drawing on the system and network of THEME to create 
text in actual communicative event. 
Culture and intercultural competence and awareness that rise out of experience 
of culture, are far more complex phenomena than it may seem to the translator. The 
more a translator is aware of complexities of differences between cultures, the better 
a translator s/he will be. It is probably right to say that there has never been a time 
when the community of translators was unaware of cultural differences and their 

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significance for translation. Translation theorists have been cognizant of the problems 
attendant upon cultural knowledge and cultural differences at least since ancient Rome. 
Cultural knowledge and cultural differences have been a major focus of translator 
training and translation theory for as long as either has been in existence. 
REFERENCES: 
1.  Abdul-Raof, Hussin (1998) Subject, Theme and Agent in Modern Standard Arabic. Richmond: 
Curzon. 
2.  Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words:" A Coursebook on Translation", London: Taylor and Francis 
Limited. 
3.  Bakir, M.j. (1980) Aspect of Clause Structure in Arabic. Unpublished Phd Thesis, Indian University. 
4.  Halliday, M. A. K. (1985). Introduction to functional grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
 
 
 
THE MAIN PARTS OF TRANSLATION 
Gülnar ALLAHVERDİYEVA 
Qərb dilləri fakultəsi Kurs II Qrup 319T1  
Elmi rəhbər: Məmmədova Təranə 
 
Translation studies is an interdiscipline containing elements of social science 
and the humanities, dealing with the systematic study of the theory, the description 
and the application of translation, interpreting or both these activities. 
Translation studies can be normative (prescribing rules for the application of 
these activities) or descriptive; a translation scholar that insisted upon this latter 
approach was Antoine Berman. 
As an interdisciplinary discipline, translation studies borrows much from the 
different fields of study that support translation. These include comparative literature, 
computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, terminology, 
and so forth. Note that occasionally in English, writers will use the term translatology 
to refer to translation studies. However, the term translation studies has become 
implanted in English, whereas in French, it is la traductologie that is used. 
CULTURAL TRANSLATION 
This is a new area of interest in the field of translation studies. Cultural translation 
is a concept used in cultural studies to denote the process of transformation, linguistic 
or otherwise, in a given culture. The concept uses linguistic translation as a tool or 
metaphor in analysing the nature of transformation in cultures. For example, 
ethnography is considered a translated narrative of an abstract living culture. 
Language interpretation is the facilitating of oral or sign-language communi-
cation, either simultaneously or consecutively, between users of different languages. 
The process is described by both the words interpreting and interpretation. 

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In professional parlance, interpreting denotes the facilitating of communication 
from one language form into its equivalent, or approximate equivalent, in another 
language form; while interpretation denotes the actual product of this work, that is, 
the message thus rendered into speech, sign language, writing, non-manual signals, or 
other language form. This important distinction is observed in order to avoid confusion. 
An interpreter is a person who converts a thought or expression in a source lan-
guage into an expression with a comparable meaning in a target language in "real 
time". The interpreter's function is to convey every semantic element (tone and re-
gister) and every intention and feeling of the message that the source-language speaker 
is directing to target-language recipients. 
SIMULTANEOUS 
In (extempore) simultaneous interpretation (SI), the interpreter renders the mes-
sage in the target-language as quickly as he or she can formulate it from the source 
language, while the source-language speaker continuously speaks; a spoken language 
SI interpreter, sitting in a sound-proof booth, speaks into a microphone, while clearly 
seeing and hearing the source-language speaker via earphones. The simultaneous 
interpretation is rendered to the target-language listeners via their earphones. Moreover, 
SI is the common mode used by sign language interpreters, although the person using 
the source language, the interpreter and the target language recipient (since either the 
hearing person or the deaf person may be delivering the message) must necessarily 
be in close proximity. NOTE: Laymen often incorrectly describe SI and the SI in-
terpreter as 'simultaneous translation' and as the 'simultaneous translator', ignoring 
the definite distinction between interpretation and translation 
CONSECUTIVE 
In consecutive interpreting (CI), the interpreter speaks after the source-language 
speaker has finished speaking. The speech is divided into segments, and the interpreter 
sits or stands beside the source-language speaker, listening and taking notes as the 
speaker progresses through the message. When the speaker pauses or finishes speaking, 
the interpreter then renders a portion of the message or the entire message in the 
target language. 
Consecutive interpretation is rendered as "short CI" or "long CI". In short CI, the 
interpreter relies on memory, each message segment being brief enough to memorize. 
In long CI, the interpreter takes notes of the message to aid rendering long passages. 
These informal divisions are established with the client before the interpretation is 
effected, depending upon the subject, its complexity, and the purpose of the inter-
pretation. 
On occasion, document sight translation is required of the interpreter during 
consecutive interpretation work. Sight translation combines interpretation and trans-
lation; the interpreter must render the source-language document to the target-
language as if it were written in the target language. Sight translation occurs usually, 
but not exclusively, in judicial and medical work. 

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Consecutively-interpreted speeches, or segments of them, tend to be short. Fifty 
years ago, the CI interpreter would render speeches of 20 or 30 minutes; today, 10 
or 15 minutes is considered too long, particularly since audiences usually prefer not 
to sit through 20 minutes of speech they cannot understand. 
Often, if not previously advised, the source-language speaker is unaware that he 
or she may speak more than a single sentence before the CI interpretation is rendered 
and might stop after each sentence to await its target-language rendering. Sometimes, 
however, depending upon the setting or subject matter, and upon the interpreter's 
capacity to memorize, the interpreter may ask the speaker to pause after each sentence 
or after each clause. Sentence-by-sentence interpreting requires less memorization 
and therefore lower likelihood for omissions, yet its disadvantage is in the interpreter's 
not having heard the entire speech or its gist, and the overall message is sometimes 
harder to render both because of lack of context and because of interrupted delivery 
(for example, imagine a joke told in bits and pieces, with breaks for translation in 
between). This method is often used in rendering speeches, depositions, recorded 
statements, court witness testimony, and medical and job interviews, but it is usually 
best to complete a whole idea before it is interpreted. 
Full (i.e., unbroken) consecutive interpreting of whole thoughts allows for the 
full meaning of the source-language message to be understood before the interpreter 
renders it in the target language. This affords a truer, more accurate, and more acces-
sible interpretation than does simultaneous interpretation. 
WHISPERED 
In whispered interpreting (chuchotage, in French), the interpreter sits or stands 
next to the small target-language audience whilst whispering a simultaneous inter-
pretation of the matter to hand; this method requires no equipment, but may be done 
via a microphone and headphones if the participants prefer. Chuchotage is used in 
circumstances where the majority of a group speaks the source language, and a mi-
nority (ideally no more than three people) do not speak it. 
RELAY 
Relay interpreting is usually used when there are several target languages. A 
source-language interpreter interprets the text to a language common to every inter-
preter, who then render the message to their respective target languages. For example, a 
Japanese source message first is rendered to English to a group of interpreters, who 
listen to the English and render the message into Arabic, French, and Russian, the 
other target languages. In heavily multilingual meetings, there may be more than 
one "intermediate" language, i.e. a Greek source language could be interpreted into 
English and then from English to other languages, and, at the same time, it may also 
be directly interpreted into French, and from French into yet more languages. This 
solution is most often used in the multilingual meetings of the EU institutions. 

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CONFERENCE 
Conference interpreting is the interpretation of a conference, either simultaneously 
or consecutively, although the advent of multi-lingual meetings has consequently 
reduced the consecutive interpretation in the last 20 years. 
Conference interpretation is divided between two markets: the institutional and 
private. International institutions (EU, UN, EPO, et cetera), holding multi-lingual 
meetings, often favour interpreting several foreign languages to the interpreters' 
mother tongues. Local private markets tend to bi-lingual meetings (the local language 
plus another) and the interpreters work both into and out of their mother tongues; the 
markets are not mutually exclusive. The International Association of Conference 
Interpreters (AIIC) is the only worldwide association of conference interpreters. 
Founded in 1953, it assembles more than 2,800 professional conference interpreters 
in more than 90 countries 
JUDICIAL 
See also Legal translation. Judicial, Legal, or Court Interpreting, occurs in courts 
of justice, administrative tribunals, and wherever a legal proceeding is held (i.e. a 
police station for an interrogation, a conference room for a deposition or the locale 
for taking a sworn statement). Legal interpreting can be the consecutive interpretation 
of witnesses' testimony for example, or the simultaneous interpretation of entire 
proceedings, by electronic means, for one person, or all of the people attending. 
The right to a competent interpreter for anyone who does not understand the 
language of the court (especially for the accused in a criminal trial) is usually conside-
red a fundamental rule of justice. Therefore, this right is often guaranteed in national 
constitutions, declarations of rights, fundamental laws establishing the justice system 
or by precedents set by the highest courts. However, it is not a constitutionally required 
procedure (in the United States) that a certified interpreter be present at police 
interrogation.
[2]
 
Depending upon the regulations and standards adhered to per state and venue, 
court interpreters usually work alone when interpreting consecutively, or as a team, 
when interpreting simultaneously. In addition to practical mastery of the source and 
target languages, thorough knowledge of law and legal and court procedures is re-
quired of court interpreters. They often are required to have formal authorisation 
from the State to work in the Courts — and then are called certified court interpreters.
[3]
 
In many jurisdictions, the interpretation is considered an essential part of the evidence. 
Incompetent interpretation, or simply failure to swear in the interpreter, can lead to a 
mistrial. 
MEDICAL 
Medical interpreting is a subset of public service interpreting, consisting of com-
munication, among medical personnel and the patient and his or her family, facilitated 
by an interpreter, usually formally educated and qualified to provide such interpretation 
services. There is no Federal Medical Interpreter certification in US right now. 

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However, there are two non-government non-profit entities which offer certification 
tests, Certification Commission for Healthcare Interpreters (CCHI) and the National 
Board of Certification for Medical Interpreters (NBCMI). In some situations medical 
employees who are multilingual may participate part-time as members of internal 
language banks.
[4]
 The medical interpreter must have a strong knowledge of medicine, 
common medical procedures, the patient interview, the medical examination processes, 
ethics, and the daily workings of the hospital or clinic where he or she works, in order 
to effectively serve both the patient and the medical personnel. Moreover, and very 
important, medical interpreters often are cultural liaisons for people (regardless of 
language) who are unfamiliar with or uncomfortable in hospital, clinical, or medical 
settings. There several Medical or Healthcare Interpreter associations in US. The 
two largest are International Medical Interpreters Association (IMIA) and the National 
Council on Interpreting in Healthcare (NCIHC), there are several other interpreter 
associations that are state-specific such as the California Healthcare Interpreting 
Association (CHIA) and the Texas Association of Healthcare Interpreters and Trans-
lators (TAHIT). NCIHC and IMIA are organizations which are dedicated to improving 
the quality and availability of language services in the delivery of healthcare. 
 
 
TRANSLATION OF SCIENTIFIC TEXTS 
Gülnarə HÜSEYNOVA 
Ganja State University Foreign languages faculty 
Profession: English language 
 
As stated earlier, the translation of scientific texts also contributes in the moder-
nization of our languages. For instance, the translation of an ordinary book of 18th 
centuries from English into an Indian language may only help in the development 
of the TL literature, but the translation of a modern scientific text not only enriches 
the TL but also helps in its modernization. 
The translation of scientific texts is an essential need in the modern Indian con-
text since most of the scientific texts are written in English, a colonial heritage, which 
is not the language of the masses. Consequently, most Indians are not in a position 
to take advantage of the scientific developments within the nation and abroad. They 
do not get even the preliminary knowledge of scientific achievements. Due to its 
dependence on a foreign language for scientific learning, Indian society has not made 
technical advances. Till such time, the only course left to us is to depend upon the 
translation of scientific texts which would not only contribute to our knowledge but 
also help us in the development and modernization of our languages. The language 
development not only means the development of vocabulary but also uses of language 
in the domains of science and technology. 

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We also must better translate our scientific discoveries, programs to patients. 
The interactive programs those provides credible, scientifically precise information 
based clinical trials and guideline recommendations to practitioners and patients. 
Providing credible information to the patient will serve to strengthen the partnership 
between patients and doctors and nurses. It is the fact that translation is at the heart 
of scientific discourse. The complexity involved in reading and writing these texts 
also involves moving from one language system to another. The presence of trans-
lation in these activities should be made visible and its consequences exhibited 
because it informs us about the possibilities of the formation of the scientific discourse 
itself. 
It is obvious that the largest consumer of the translated scientific text is by and 
large the student community. Besides this group, there might be some smaller groups 
of people interested in understanding the happenings of scientific world for the of 
knowledge. From this point of view the scientific literature may be placed in three 
categories: 
a. Text addressed to common masses (Journalistic writings) 
b. Student Community (Text books, Reference material) 
c. Expert group (Research papers, dissertations etc.) 
Scientists someday decide to present their research findings in their own tongue 
they will have to develop the necessary jargon and styles of presentation in it. 
There are many practical problems of the translation of scientific concepts and 
ideas from English into Indian languages. It is almost impossible to develop scientific 
material in our languages without overcoming these problems. In other words, for 
proper exposition, description, discussion and presentation of the scientific concepts 
and ideas in Indian languages. But history has also shown that in the face of enormous 
challenges, we find innovative solutions. We have been finding solutions. 
Scientific communication depends on two sets of rules: laws of nature and the 
principles of language. Effective scientific translators must understand not only the 
fundamental science they are translating but also the principles of two written lan-
guages: the source language and the target language. With that understanding comes 
the recognition of cultural differences, which fosters respect in querying an author. 
Consequently, a power struggle, often exists between the translator and the editor. 
The best translator is also an editor. Translators who are not editors will not focus on 
the things an editor would focus on, such as consistency of terms throughout a ma-
nuscript, adhering to a particular style in scientific texts. 
Developing accelerates. Until 21
st
 century many things have been defined. This 
new century will bring the most extraordinary and useful discoveries in good meaning. 
The discoveries are permeating to any station exponentially. And the modern scientists 
will release a lot of essential news. 
 

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TRANSLATION: SCIENCE, ART OR CRAFT? 
Ləman ƏLİZADƏ 
Qafqaz university IV course 
Academic advisor: f.e.n Ətrabə Gül 
 
``I do not hesitate to read all good books in translations. What is really best in 
any book is translatable - any real insight or broad human sentiment. ``Ralph Waldo 
Emerson, (1803-1882) U.S. poet, essayist and lecturer 
Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text 
in one language - the source text - and the production, in another language, of a new, 
equivalent text - the target text, or translation. 
Traditionally, translation has been a human activity, although attempts have been 
made to automate and computerize the translation of natural-language texts - machine 
translation-or to use computers as an aid to translation-computer-assisted translation. 
Translation is in fact a serious business that should be approached sensibly in order 
to avoid poor results. Translation is far from easy. It can be very intricate, complex and 
arduous work. For example, having to simultaneously concentrate on two different 
texts is mentally exhausting. 
Is translation a science or art? Maybe it is technical craft or a branch of linguistics? 
Being used as a means to act as a bridge between two cultures, translation seems to be a 
complicated activity or phenomenon. 
The debate as to whether translation is an art or science has a long history. Some 
argue that it is a process of creative thinking. Also translation has always been con-
sidered as a second-hand art. 
As Savory (1957:49) claim, "it would almost be true to say that there are no 
universally accepted principles of translation, because the only people qualified to 
formulate them have never agreed among themselves"; therefore, he does not tend to 
consider translation as a science. 
According to Kelly, Hieronymus (also known as St. Jerome, 4th century A.D) 
as well as others followed Cicero's claim constantly that translation was a branch of 
oratory. Toury (1982:7) believes that translation, as a cognitive science, has to reach 
beyond linguistics, and calls it "interdisciplinary"; consequently, it seems that he 
considers translation a science. 
Nevertheless, Chukovskii (1984:93) does not take translation into consideration 
as a science when he confirms that, "translation is not only an art, but a high art." 
Some scholars consider translation a science. Though the most salient features of 
a field of science are precision and predictability, Berkeley (1991:83) notes that some 
sciences, principally those dealing with the humanities, do not attain a one hundred