DCN
PC
GC
LRN
Bifurcating
cervical
neurons
Cervical
MN
Motor
efference
copy
Motor execution
b
Brainstem and cerebellum
Reticular formation
Reaching
V2a
Cervical
spinal cord
Genetic
subpopulations
Excitatory
Inhibitory
Mixed
RN
Grasping
Sk
ill
ed
FL behav
ior
3D reaching space
a
1
Diverse hand actions
2
Skilled FL movements
+
1
2
MdV
Figure 2
Brainstem-centric view of skilled forelimb behaviors. (a) Schematic illustration of the usage of FLs in skilled behaviors. The arm makes
use of the 3D reaching space to bring the hand to a desired location (cone and red spots) in the first phase of the behavior, and the hand
then carries out one of many diverse actions in a second phase. (b) Incomplete scheme of the brainstem/cerebellum (top) and spinal
(bottom) circuitry described in this review and implicated in skilled FL behavior. The left side of the scheme focuses on descending
circuit organization for motor execution, and the right side depicts circuits for the computation of motor efference information. Note
that bifurcating cervical neurons reside at the boundary between these two categories. They connect to cervical MNs and neurons in
the LRN in the brainstem. LRN neurons in turn communicate with cerebellar circuits (GCs, PCs) and DCN. The reticular formation
(including MdV) and the midbrain RN are regions implicated in different aspects of skilled FL behavior. Abbreviations: DCN, deep
cerebellar nuclei; FL, forelimb; GC, granule cell; LRN, lateral reticular nucleus; MdV, medullary reticular formation ventral part;
MN, motor neuron; PC, Purkinje cell; RN, red nucleus.
dorsolateral spinal domains proposed to be involved in distal forelimb control (Kuypers 1964,
Lemon 2008). Recent work demonstrates that some brainstem populations preferentially com-
municate with cervical spinal neurons in mice (Esposito et al. 2014) (Figure 2). Of the iden-
tified brainstem regions, glutamatergic (vGlut2) neurons in a caudal brainstem area named the
medullary reticular formation ventral part (MdV) connect to interneurons and specific cervical
motor neuron pools encompassing extensor and flexor subtypes (Esposito et al. 2014). Functional
work further demonstrated that MdV-vGlut2 neurons are required for the execution of skilled
forelimb movements. Most notably, in a single food pellet–retrieval task, during which mice carry
out the modular sequence of reaching, grasping, and retrieving a food pellet, MdV-vGlut2 neu-
rons are needed for efficient execution of specifically the grasping phase (Figure 2). The work
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identified additional brainstem regions with distinct connectivity profiles to the cervical spinal
cord, but their behavioral role remains to be studied. In addition, the red nucleus located in the
midbrain projects to the spinal cord in a dorsolateral tract and has also been implicated in the con-
trol of skilled forelimb movement ( Jarratt & Hyland 1999, Kuypers & Lawrence 1967, Whishaw
et al. 1998) (Figure 2). Specifically, dorsolateral tract lesions in rats lead to defects in the arpeg-
gio phase of the reach-grasp behavior (Morris et al. 2011). Jointly, these observations suggest that
distinct brainstem populations control specific aspects or phases of skilled forelimb behaviors by
accessing specialized spinal circuits.
How do the descending pathways implicated in skilled forelimb behaviors interact with spinal
neurons? Experiments performed in cats identified cervical spinal neurons that receive direct in-
put from cortical, reticular, and rubrospinal neurons and connect intraspinally mostly to neurons
within the cervical spinal cord, including motor neurons (Alstermark & Kummel 1986, Alstermark
et al. 2007, Illert et al. 1978). Since such neurons were preferentially found at cervical levels C3
and C4, they were named C3-C4 propriospinal neurons. Early experiments in cats using spinal
tract lesions of C3-C4 projections suggested an involvement of these neurons in forelimb-specific
behaviors such as reaching (Alstermark et al. 1981b). A more recent study performed in monkeys
and using a mix of retrograde and anterograde viral tools showed that the silencing of neurons lo-
cated at C3-C5 and projecting to C6-T1 induces impairments in forelimb reaching and grasping
behaviors (Kinoshita et al. 2012). These deficits reversed after a few days, suggesting that com-
pensatory mechanisms developed via unaffected descending pathways such as cortico-, reticulo-,
or rubrospinal projections or other intraspinal relays (Kinoshita et al. 2012). Interestingly, in ad-
dition to their direct connections to motor neurons and other spinal interneurons, a fraction of
C3-C4 propriospinal neurons also sends ascending projections to the precerebellar lateral reticu-
lar nucleus (LRN) in the brainstem, harboring neurons that in turn give rise to cerebellar mossy
fibers (Alstermark & Ekerot 2013, Alstermark et al. 1981a). Bifurcating spinal neurons, therefore,
serve for both descending motor command integration and the production of ascending efference
copy pathways to update and potentially adapt ongoing behavior through cerebellar circuitry.
Recent studies have addressed the identity and functional organization of cervical neurons
with supraspinal ascending projections (Azim et al. 2014, Hayashi et al. 2018, Pivetta et al. 2014)
(Figure 2). A common entry point for these studies was the finding that, during development,
spinal populations with involvement in functionally specific aspects of motor behavior are of-
ten derived from distinct progenitor domains (Alaynick et al. 2011, Arber 2012, Goulding 2009,
Kiehn 2016). Different spinal populations are characterized by the expression of selective tran-
scription factors, allowing for their genetic targeting. Anatomically mapping bifurcating cervi-
cal projection neurons in mice revealed that they distribute much more broadly than to just
C3-C4 segments, although they are nevertheless confined to cervical levels (Pivetta et al. 2014).
LRN-projecting cervical neurons also fractionate into several genetically distinct populations en-
compassing excitatory and inhibitory subsets, as demonstrated by intersectional genetic and viral
tracing methods that permanently label neurons derived from distinct progenitor domains or neu-
rotransmitter identity (Figure 2). Interestingly, identified populations establish anatomically di-
vergent terminal arborizations within the LRN (Pivetta et al. 2014). The excitatory V2a popula-
tion contains a fraction of these ascending projection neurons, and targeted ablation of the overall
V2a population at cervical levels in mice elicits defects in reaching but not grasping in a food
pellet retrieval task (Azim et al. 2014, Ueno et al. 2018). Furthermore, the optogenetic activation
of ascending branches of cervical V2a neurons in the LRN severely perturbs the forelimb reach-
ing trajectory (Figure 2), providing evidence that the ascending V2a branch can affect forelimb
behavior (Azim et al. 2014).
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The overall V2a population is still a diverse population. In addition to its involvement in
forelimb reaching, the V2a population has been functionally linked to left-right alternation in
a speed-dependent manner (Crone et al. 2008, 2009). This functional heterogeneity suggests
that more distinct subpopulations exist within the V2a population, and indeed two different
types (i.e., V2a type I: low Chx10 expression, present throughout the spinal cord; V2a type II:
high Chx10 expression, preferentially located at cervical levels and with ascending projections
to the brainstem) were recently described (Hayashi et al. 2018). Furthermore, single-cell RNA
sequencing of V2a neurons revealed 11 clusters with different fractions of type I and type II V2a
neurons, leading to the speculation that specific clusters of type I V2a neurons might be involved
in whole-body locomotion, whereas other type II, cervically enriched V2a neuron clusters might
be involved in skilled forelimb movements (Hayashi et al. 2018).
Together, functionally diverse subsets of cervical spinal neurons integrate descending motor
commands and establish ascending axons to precerebellar neurons in the LRN (Figure 2). This
raises the question of whether and how information passing through the cerebellum to deep cere-
bellar nuclei (DCN) influences skilled (forelimb) behavior to close the loop. Such a looped circuit
structure would allow for the comparison of executed to intended movement in order to adjust
movement if needed. Integration already seems to occur at the level of granule cells for a variety
of behavioral paradigms, even incorporating learning-related information, including reward and
punishment as well as anticipatory movement-related signals (Giovannucci et al. 2017, Huang
et al. 2013, Wagner et al. 2017). Purkinje cells (PCs) represent the output channels of the cerebel-
lar cortex, signaling by inhibition to DCN neurons that, as a population, target both ascending and
descending structures. It is well established that cerebellar circuitry and the PC-to-DCN path-
way are involved in associative forms of learning (Medina 2011). Optogenetic manipulation stud-
ies helped determine whether changing the PC firing rate can influence behavior instantaneously
(Heiney et al. 2014, Lee et al. 2015). PCs fire spontaneously at high rates (50–100 Hz), and re-
ducing or pausing their firing is predicted to disinhibit downstream DCN neurons and influence
movement. Indeed, the transient silencing of PCs by either activation of inhibitory molecular layer
interneurons or direct optogenetic inhibition of PCs elicits discrete behaviors, resulting in either
eyelid or forelimb movement, according to the inhibited region (Heiney et al. 2014, Lee et al.
2015). Distinct DCN neurons are also accessible genetically. Optogenetic activation and ablation
experiments demonstrate that a molecularly defined population in the DCN interposed anterior
nucleus (Ucn3
+
) influences both fore- and hindlimb positioning (Low et al. 2018).
These combined data show that a looped and bidirectionally communicating network between
the brainstem and spinal cord plays important roles in the control of skilled forelimb movements.
Future work will reveal the identity and connectivity of the circuit components responsible for
parsing together the distinct behavioral elements of skilled forelimb movement and how these
behaviors can be adjusted. This will increase our understanding of their synaptic and functional
interactions with higher motor centers, including cortical, thalamic, and basal ganglia components,
and intrabrainstem connectivity between functionally distinct areas.
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