Difficulties in Learning English As a Second Or Foreign Language

instrumental
motivation drives learners to succeed in order to improve their life, or to 
meet their needs or goals in life. Examples of this kind of motivation include learning 
English to pass an examination, such as that for U.S. citizenship, or to get a better job or 
to be accepted in a school or education program, or to talk to their children’s teachers 
(Morris, 2001; Oxford & Shearin, 1994; both cited in Moss & Ross-Feldman, 2003).
The fourth type of motivation is intrinsic, which reflects “the arousal and maintenance of 
curiosity” in learning activities themselves by learners (Ellis). Intrinsically motivated 

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learners simply enjoy the process of second language learning and thrive in the 
environment of the second language classroom as well as in the target language learning 
environment. 
Aptitude 
While youthful enthusiasm, adventurousness, and a gift for languages or an ear 
for language
are immeasurably valuable, there are many influences that contribute to 
successful language learning or conversely, create a barrier to it. The concept of 
language aptitude, a natural ability for learning an L2, includes, as credited to John 
Carroll by Ellis (1997): 
1.
Phonemic coding ability, i.e. the ability to identify the sounds of a foreign 
language so that they can be remembered later. This ability is also seen as 
related to the ability to handle sound-symbol relationships (for example, 
to identify the sound which “th” stands for). 
2.
Grammatical sensitivity, i.e. the ability to recognize the grammatical 
function of words in sentences (for example, the subject and object of a 
sentence). 
3.
Inductive language learning ability, i.e. the ability to identify patterns of 
correspondence and relations between form and meaning (for example, to 
recognize that in English “to” can denote direction and “at” location). 
4.
Rote learning ability, i.e. the ability to form and remember associations 
between stimuli. This is believed to be important in vocabulary learning. 
(p. 74) 
If these abilities combine to represent an aptitude for successful learning, then the 
absence of these abilities might represent a basis for a language learning deficit. 
Hindrances and Barriers 
While much of the discussion on differences, difficulties, and other hindrances to 
learning ESL in the literature is generated in the context of learning disabilities (LD), 
and more specifically, language learning disabilities (LLD), which will be addressed 

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later in this review, the effects of the lack of progress can be critical and there can be 
many reasons for the lack of progress outside of the possible presence of LD. According 
to Schwarz and Terrill (2000), other reasons for the lack of expected progress include,
1.
limited academic skills in the native language due to limited previous 
education; 
2.
the lack of effective study habits; 
3.
interference of a learner’s native language, particularly if the learner is 
used to a non-Roman alphabet; 
4.
mismatch between the instructors teaching style and the learner’s 
expectations of how the class will be conducted; 
5.
stress or trauma that refugees or other immigrants have experienced, 
causing symptoms such as difficulty in concentration and memory 
dysfunction; 
6.
sociocultural factors such as age, physical health, social identity; 
7.
external problems with work, health and family; 
8.
sporadic classroom attendance, and 
9. 
lack of practice outside the classroom. (pp. 3-4) 
If any of these can cause a lack of progress, it becomes apparent that many of these 
problems can overlap and that a combination of them might spell certain failure. For 
example, external challenges related to family, work, and social identity might combine 
to limit a learner’s classroom attendance and outside practice opportunities; or, if a 
learner has poor or limited study skills that had never had the chance to develop, he or 
she might also lack effective study habits by virtue of never having learned them.