Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
Ref.
c
In patients with abdominal aortic
diameter of 25–29 mm, new
ultrasound imaging should be
considered 4 years later.
IIa
B
367
Surveillance is indicated and safe in
patients with AAA with a
maximum diameter of <55 mm
and slow (<10 mm/year) growth.
d
I
A
340,373
In patients with small (30–55 mm)
AAAs, the following time interval
for imaging should be considered:
d
•
every 3 years for AAA
of 30–39 mm
diameter.
•
every 2 years for AAA
of 40–44 mm
diameter.
•
every year for AAA
>45 mm
e
diameter.
IIa
B
365
Smoking cessation is
recommended to slow growth of
the AAA.
I
B
351
IIb
B
355,345
AAA repair is indicated if:
•
AAA diameter exceeds
55 mm.
f
•
Aneurysm growth
exceeds 10 mm/year.
I
B
373,363
If a large aneurysm is anatomically
suitable for EVAR, either open or
endovascular aortic repair is
recommended in patients with
acceptable surgical risk.
I
A
397,398
If a large aneurysm is anatomically
unsuitable for EVAR, open aortic
repair is recommended.
I
C
In patients with asymptomatic
AAA who are unfit for open
repair, EVAR, along with best
medical treatment, may be
considered.
g
IIb
B
388,399
To reduce aortic complications in
patients with small AAAs, the use
of statins and ACE-inhibitors may
be considered.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
d
With ,1% risk of rupture between two AAA imaging assessments.
e
This interval maybe shortened in women or in the case of rapid growth between
previous assessments.
f
Individual decision for operative aneurysm correction should also be influenced by
the patient’s gender. At a given size, AAAs in women are up to four times as likely to
rupture under surveillance, thus aortic repair can be discussed at a lower threshold
of probably 50 mm. The patient’s life expectancy should also be considered prior to
decision for intervention.
g
Since only aneurysm-related and not all-cause mortality is improved, informed
patient choice is to be taken into account.
AAA ¼ abdominal aortic aneurysm; ACE ¼ angiotensin-converting enzyme;
EVAR ¼ endovascular aortic repair.
7.2.7.2 Diagnostic work-up
In the presence of free, ruptured AAA, massive periaortic bleeding
involving the perirenal or pararenal spaces, as well as free fluid in
the peritoneal space, allows for a straightforward diagnosis even
with ultrasound. Computed tomography is the imaging method of
choice in the evaluation of patients with suspected contained- or con-
tained rupture of an AAA. Signs suggesting this condition include a
large aneurysm sac, increase of aneurysm size, a thrombus and high-
attenuation crescent sign, focal discontinuity in circumferential wall
calcification, and the ‘draped aortic sign’.
400
This term refers to the
combination of an indistinct posterior aortic wall, which lies in
close proximity to the adjacent vertebral body, often with loss of
the normal fat plane. It may indicate aortic wall insufficiency and con-
tained leak, even in the absence of retroperitoneal bleeding.
401
7.2.7.3 Treatment
The preferred treatment strategy for ruptured AAA is currently
being investigated in a number of clinical trials.
402
The recently pub-
lished results from the Amsterdam Acute Aneurysm (AJAX) trial
showed no significant difference in the combined endpoint of
death and severe complication at 30 days, between EVAR and open
repair (42 vs. 47%, respectively; absolute risk reduction 5.4%; 95%
CI – 13 – 23%).
403
Very recent results from the largest study—the Im-
mediate Management of the Patient with Rupture: Open Vs. Endovas-
cular repair trial—yielded similar 30-day mortality results of an
endovascular-first strategy and the conventional treatment of imme-
diate repair (35.4 vs. 37.4%, respectively; OR 0.92; 95% CI 0.66 – 1.28;
P ¼ 0.62). All patients with an endovascular-first strategy were sent
for immediate CT scan to determine their anatomical suitability for
endovascular repair. Suitable patients underwent immediate endo-
vascular repair and the remainder open repair.
404
Regarding the patient’s gender, for untreated aneurysms the risk of
rupture is almost four times as great in women than in men for similar
aortic aneurysm diameters. Compared with men, women are
exposed to higher periprocedural mortality in elective open and endo-
vascular aneurysm repair.
405
The same is true for emergency open
repair of ruptured AAA.
406
Conversely, a recent systematic analysis
did not show a statistically significant increase in risk for mortality in
women presenting with ruptured AAA undergoing endovascular
repair.
407
This is supported by the results from the IMPROVE trial,
which suggest that women in particular may benefit from an endovascu-
lar strategy.
396
7.2.8 Long-term prognosis and follow-up of aortic
aneurysm repair
Most patients require a convalescence period of up to 3 months after
open AAA repair, after which quality-of-life scores are similar for endo-
vascular and open AAA repair, and even slightly better for open repair
at 1 year.
408
Open AAA repair is regarded as durable and late, graft-
related complications are unusual. Conrad et al. reported a graft-related
complication rate of 5.4% at 10 years, while Hallett et al. quoted a rate
of 9.4% at an average follow-up of 5.8 years.
409
,
410
The most common
complications were anastomotic pseudoaneurysm and graft limb
thromboses; graft infection, however, occurs in less than 1%.
Secondary aortic ruptures after open repair are extremely rare;
none were reported during long-term follow-up in the EVAR-1
trial.
388
Conversely, ruptures after EVAR have been described in
many reports and carry a high risk of mortality. These secondary
sac ruptures, occurring at a rate of 0.7 per 100 patient-years, were
further investigated in the EVAR-1 and EVAR-2 cohorts and were
likely to have caused the observed convergence over time, in
ESC Guidelines
2909
aneurysm-related mortality, between open repair and EVAR.
411
Some specific ‘cluster’ factors, such as Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3
endoleaks, all with sac expansion, kinking, or migration, were asso-
ciated with late sac ruptures.
411
There is some evidence that oral anticoagulation may negatively
impact on EVAR outcome due to a higher risk of all types of endo-
leaks, including persistent Type II, and a loss of endograft sealing. Con-
sequently, close surveillance of EVAR patients on long-term
anticoagulation is advised.
412
,
413
Recommendations on management of patients with
symptomatic abdominal aortic aneurysm
Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
Ref.
c
In patients with suspected rupture
of AAA, immediate abdominal
ultrasound or CT is recommended.
I
C
In case of ruptured AAA,
emergency repair is indicated.
I
C
In case of symptomatic but non-
ruptured AAA, urgent repair is
indicated.
I
C
In case of symptomatic AAA
anatomically suitable for EVAR,
either open or endovascular aortic
repair is recommended.
d
I
A
403
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
d
Depending on the expertise of the interventional team and patient’s level of risk.
AAA ¼ abdominal aortic aneurysm; CT ¼ computed tomography;
EVAR ¼ endovascular aortic repair.
8 Genetic diseases affecting
the aorta
Genetic diseases affecting the aorta are broadly split into two cat-
egories: syndromic and non-syndromic, both essentially displaying
autosomal dominant transmission. In the past decade, novel under-
lying gene defects have been discovered in both categories, leading
to the constitution of homogeneous molecular groups of thoracic
aortic aneurysms and dissection (TAAD). Extensive clinical and
imaging studies readily found involvement of the arterial vasculature
that was more extensive than just the thoracic aorta. Also, unreport-
ed specific alterations were revealed, some shared between the
various molecular entities. Finally, large clinical variability is observed
within families carrying an identical gene mutation and instances of in-
complete penetrance (a ‘skipped generation’) are observed. Both
categories and chromosomal or molecular entities of inherited
TAAD, as well as non-inherited TAAD, display cystic medial necrosis,
thus excluding the use of pathology for making a precise diagnosis.
8.1 Chromosomal and inherited
syndromic thoracic aortic aneurysms
and dissection
8.1.1 Turner syndrome
Turner syndrome (TS) is essentially caused by partial or complete
monosomy of the X chromosome (karyotype 45X0). Diagnosis is
based on clinical findings and cytogenetic analyses. Affected women
display short stature, various congenital cardiac defects, aortic abnor-
malities, and metabolic and hormonal alterations leading to obesity,
impaired glucose tolerance, hyperlipidaemia, and ovarian failure.
Hypertension and brachiofemoral delay are due to coarctation of
the aorta, found in 12% of women with TS, usually identified in child-
hood. Bicuspid aortic valve is found in 30% of patients.
414
Approxi-
mately 75% of individuals with TS have an abnormal cardiovascular
anatomy.
415
,
416
A generalized dilation of major vessels is observed,
notably the aorta, the brachial, and carotid arteries. Elongation of the
transverse arch and aortic dilation are respectively observed in 30%
and 33% of cases, the latter typically located at the root of the ascend-
ing aorta. Determination of aortic diameter in adults with TS is,
however, difficult in the absence of adequate sex- and age-matched
controls of similar body size. The incidence of AD in women with
TS is 100 times as great as for women in general, occurring in the
third and fourth decades of life.
416
The management of adult women
with TS associates imaging (echocardiogram and thoracic MRI) with
cardiovascular risk assessment. Follow-up will be related to risk cat-
egories (absence or number of standard vascular cardiovascular
risk factors) with TTE every 3– 5 years for low risk, thoracic MRI
every 3– 5 years for moderate risk, and referral to a cardiologist with
1 –2-yearly thoracic MRI for high-risk patients.
414
The genetic basis
of the disease is still unclear in terms of related cardiovascular and
metabolic phenotypes, while short stature has been associated with
haploinsufficiency for the SHOX gene.
417
8.1.2 Marfan syndrome
Marfan syndrome is the most frequent heritable connective tissue
disorder. Transmitted as an autosomal dominant disease, Marfan
syndrome is essentially associated with mutations in the FBN1 gene
that encodes fibrillin-1, the major component of isolated or elastin-
associated microfibrils.
418
In a fibrillin-deficient mouse model of
Marfan syndrome, enhanced transforming growth factor (TGF)-
beta signalling was identified and inhibition of TGF-beta with a neu-
tralizing antibody or with angiotensin-II Type-1 receptor blockers
was shown to reverse vascular complications.
419
This result was im-
portant, since it provided the first new therapeutic option in over
20 years—since the initial report by Shores et al. of the effectiveness
of beta-blockade in slowing the rate of aortic dilation, which led to the
widespread use of this treatment in Marfan syndrome.
98
Several
RCTs testing sartans are under way using various Marfan syndrome
populations (children and young adults, or adults) and designs (aten-
olol vs. losartan or losartan vs. placebo on top of optimal
therapy).
420
–
422
The results of the two earliest trials (in 20 paediat-
ric/adolescent patients
423
and in 233 adults
96
) show that losartan
is effective in reducing the rate of dilation of the aortic root. The
results from the other trials are expected in 2014.
Marfan syndrome has already been addressed and recommenda-
tions can be found in the Guidelines on the management of
grown-up congenital heart disease.
424
8.1.3 Ehlers-Danlos syndrome Type IV or vascular type
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome Type IV (EDSIV) is a rare, autosomal, dom-
inant connective tissue disorder caused by mutations in the COL3A1
gene coding for Type III procollagen. Diagnosis is based on clinical
signs, non-invasive imaging, and the identification of a mutation in
the COL3A1 gene. The clinical features of EDSIV are thin, translucent
ESC Guidelines
2910
skin, extensive bruising, characteristic facial appearance (notably a
pinched and thin nose, thin lips, prominent ears, hollow cheeks, and
tightness of skin over the face), and premature ageing of the skin. Indi-
viduals with EDSIV have significantly shortened life spans (50% mortal-
ity rate by 48 years) due to the spontaneous rupture of visceral organs
(colon, uterus) and blood vessels;
425
it affects the entire vascular
system and the heart. Fusiform aneurysms are reported. Vascular com-
plications have a tendency to affect arteries of large and medium dia-
meters. The disease frequently involves the thoracic and abdominal
aorta, the renal, mesenteric, iliac, and femoral arteries, as well as the
vertebral and carotid arteries (extra- and intra-cranial).
426
Arteries
can dissect without previous dilation and are thus unpredictable.
One open randomised trial on 53 affected patients showed a 64%
risk reduction of rupture or dissection over 4 years.
427
Non-invasive
imaging is the preferred approach for evaluating vascular alterations;
surgery is only contemplated in potentially fatal complications, since
the fragility of tissue, haemorrhagic tendency, and poor wound
healing confer an added surgical risk. Prolonged post-operative moni-
toring is required.
428
There are no data to set a threshold diameter
for intervention in cases of TAA, and the decision should be based
on case by case, multidisciplinary discussion.
8.1.4 Loeys-Dietz syndrome
First described in 2005, Loeys-Dietz syndrome (LDS) is an autosomal
dominant aortic aneurysm syndrome combining the triad of arterial
tortuosity and aneurysms throughout the arterial tree, hypertelorism,
and bifid uvula, as well as features shared with Marfan syndrome.
320
,
429
In some forms, LDS shows a strong overlap with EDSIV. Loeys-Dietz
syndrome is associated with mutations in either of the genes encoding
the Type I or Type II TGF-beta receptors (TGFBR1 or TGFBR2). Since
arterial tortuosity is diagnosed on qualitative observations, a vertebral
tortuosity index—measured on a volume-rendered angiogram
obtained by thoracic contrast-enhanced MRI—was proposed by
Morris et al.
430
and was shown to be a reproducible marker of
adverse cardiovascular outcomes, not only in LDS but also in other
connective tissue disorders where arterial tortuosity is less frequently
observed (notably Marfan syndrome and EDS).
Extreme clinical severity is more readily observed in children with
prominent craniofacial features (cleft palate, craniosynostosis, retro-
gnathia, exotropia and proptosis) associated with a more severe
aortic disease. Observation, in both children and adults, of a wide-
spread and aggressive arteriopathy led to the recommendation of
early operative intervention at ascending aortic diameters of
≥42 mm.
320
Aggressive surgical management of the aneurysms in
patients with LDS is achieved with few complications in the
absence of tissue fragility.
320
,
431
However a definite threshold diam-
eter for intervention in cases of TAA cannot be still proposed and the
matter requires further investigation. Notably, mutations in the
TGFBR2 gene are also found in patients with a Marfan phenotype,
who do not display the altered craniofacial features or the wide-
spread and aggressive arteriopathy reported in LDS.
432
In contrast
to initial studies, which reported dismal clinical outcomes for patients
with LDS with TGFBR2 mutations, outcomes appeared similar to
those of patients with an FBN1 mutation once the diagnosis was
made and medical care given. Conversely, the spontaneous evolution
of affected patients who were not medically followed up illustrated
the severe prognosis in the absence of care. Patient management is
tailored according to extensive vascular imaging at baseline and
family history of vascular events.
8.1.5 Arterial tortuosity syndrome
Characterized by arterial tortuosity, elongation, stenosis, and aneur-
ysm of the large- and middle-sized arteries, arterial tortuosity syn-
drome (ATS) is a very rare autosomal recessive disease. Focal
stenoses of the pulmonary arteries and aorta can also be found.
Patients display altered facial features (elongated face, blepharophi-
mosis and down-slanting palpebral fissures, a beaked nose, a highly
arched palate, and micrognathia) and various signs of a more general-
ized connective tissue disorder of skin (soft, hyperextensible skin)
and skeleton (arachnodactyly, chest deformity, joint laxity, and con-
tractures) overlapping those found in Marfan syndrome. The progno-
sis was first reported to be poor with mortality rates up to 40%
before the age of 5 years.
433
A more recent study in families of
mostly European origin reported on adult patients, with less-
frequent aneurysms and a less-severe vascular phenotype.
434
Initially
reported in families from Italy, Morocco, and the Middle East, ATS is
associated with mutations in the SLC2A10 gene that encodes the fa-
cilitative glucose transporter GLUT10.
435
Management of patients
requires a baseline whole-body vascular imaging, and follow-up
should be individually tailored, based on the rate of enlargement of
vascular diameters and the family history.
8.1.6 Aneurysms-osteoarthritis syndrome
Aneurysms-osteoarthritis syndrome (AOS) is a new syndromic
TAAD that accounts for approximately 2% of familial TAAD.
426
This autosomal dominant condition combines early-onset joint ab-
normalities (including osteoarthritis and osteochondritis dissecans)
and aortic aneurysms and dissections. Tortuosity, aneurysms, and
dissections are reported throughout the arterial tree.
436
,
437
Mild
craniofacial-, skin-, and skeletal features may also be found, overlap-
ping with Marfan syndrome and LDS.
437
The disease is associated
with mutations in the SMAD3 gene, which encodes an intracellular ef-
fector of TGF-beta signalling.
438
Diagnosis is based on clinical features
and the identification of a mutation in the SMAD3 gene. There is no
current consensus on management. Beta-blockade may be beneficial
in AOS, since it displays identical aortic alterations to those observed
in Marfan syndrome and Loeys-Dietz syndrome, for which this treat-
ment is efficient.
436
However, since only limited data are available on
the rate of growth of aneurysm, some authors suggest applying the
aggressive surgical management recommended for LDS.
439
8.1.7 Non-syndromic familial thoracic aortic aneurysms
and dissection
Most patients with TAAD do not have a known genetic syndrome.
In these patients, familial aggregation with an affected first-degree
relative is found in up to 19% of cases. These non-syndromic forms
of TAAD (nsTAAD) may be associated with BAV and/or persistent
ductus arteriosus,
440
and display typical cystic medial necrosis on patho-
logical examination
441
Non-syndromic TAAD presents an autosomal
dominant transmission with great clinical variability (notably in
women) and decreased penetrance.
442
Mutations in genes known to
be involved in syndromic forms of TAAD (FBN1, TGFBR1, and
TGFBR2) are rarely found in families and sporadic patients with
ESC Guidelines
2911
nsTAAD.
432
,
443
The effects of mutations in the following new nsTAAD
genes have been identified as follows:
† Mutations in MYH11 (encoding a myosin heavy chain produced in
smooth muscle cell [SMC]) associate TAAD and patent ductus
arteriosus.
444
† Mutations in ACTA2 (encoding the SMC-specific alpha-actin) are
found in patients with TAAD also presenting with coronary
artery disease, stroke, and Moyamoya disease.
445
† Mutations in MYLK (encoding myosin light chain kinase) lead to AD
with little to no aortic enlargement.
446
† Mutations in TGFB2 (encoding TGF-beta Type 2) result in TAAD with
some overlap with Marfan syndrome for skin and skeletal features.
446
† Mutations in PRKG1 (encoding PKG I, a Type I cGMP-dependent
protein kinase that controls SMC relaxation) result in aortic an-
eurysm and acute ADs at relatively young ages.
447
All of these new molecular entities of nsTAAD and the known gene
defects of the syndromic forms now provide a more comprehensive
picture of the initiating events of TAAD, with either a connective
tissue defect or decreased TGF-beta signalling or altered SMC contract-
ile function. Clinically, these molecular forms display strong overlap and
a continuum of gravity of the aortic disease, as well as a more general-
ized arteriopathy than was previously known. Few data are yet available
on the natural history of the new molecular entities of nsTAAD. Diag-
nosis relies first on exclusion of known genetic syndromes, followed by
genetic counselling and investigation of first-degree relatives. Current
management strategies combine widespread imaging at baseline and
follow-up, according to family history of vascular events.
Recommendations on genetic testing in aortic diseases
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