Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
In case of suspicion of TAI, CT is
recommended.
I
C
If CT is not available, TOE should be
considered
IIa
C
In cases of TAI with suitable anatomy
requiring intervention, TEVAR should be
preferred to surgery.
IIa
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
CT ¼ computed tomography; TAI ¼ traumatic aortic injury; TEVAR ¼ thoracic
endovascular aortic repair; TOE ¼ transoesophageal echocardiography.
6.9 Iatrogenic aortic dissection
Iatrogenic aortic dissection (IAD) may occur in the setting of
(i) catheter-based coronary procedures, (ii) cardiac surgery, (iii) as
a complication of endovascular treatment of aortic coarcta-
tion,
296
,
297
(iv) aortic endografting,
298
(v) peripheral interventions,
(vi) intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation and, more recently,
(vii) during transcatheter aortic valve implantation.
299
With respect
to catheter-based coronary procedures, IAD is a rare complication,
reported in less than 4 per 10 000 coronary angiographies and less
than 2 per 1000 percutaneous coronary interventions.
299
–
303
One
series reported an incidence of 7.5 per 1000 coronary interven-
tions.
304
Iatrogenic AD can be induced when the catheter is
pushed into the vessel wall during the introduction of a diagnostic
or guiding catheter, and is usually located in the abdominal aorta. Iat-
rogenic AD can also be the result of retrograde extension into the
ascending aorta of a vessel wall injury, most commonly located at
the ostium of the right coronary artery, which is located along the
right anterior convexity of the ascending aorta where dissections
more easily extend upwards.
300
–
304
Injury propagation may be
favoured by contrast injections and extensive dissections involving
the ascending aorta, the aortic arch, the supra-aortic vessels, and
even the descending aorta may be observed. Furthermore, extension
of the intimal flap towards the aortic valve may cause significant acute
aortic regurgitation, haemopericardium and cardiac tamponade.
Usually, the diagnosis of IAD is straightforward during angiography,
characterized by stagnation of contrast medium at the level of the
aortic root or ascending aorta. If needed, the extension of the
process can be further investigated with TOE or CT. Clinical manifes-
tations may range from the absence of symptoms to excruciating
chest, back, or abdominal pain, according to the site of the AD. Hypo-
tension, haemodynamic compromise, and shock may ensue. At times,
the diagnosis of IAD may be difficult due to atypical presentation and
relative lack of classic signs of dissection on imaging studies.
305
The
management of iatrogenic catheter-induced AD is not standardized.
A conservative approach is frequently applied, especially for
catheter-induced dissection of the abdominal aorta or iliac arteries,
and for those located at the level of the coronary cusps. Whilst an
IAD of the right coronary artery ostium may compromise flow at
the ostium and require emergency coronary stenting, the outcome
for the aortic wall is benign when the complication is promptly recog-
nized and further injections are avoided. Treatment is conservative in
most cases, with complete spontaneous healing observed in most
instances. Rupture is exceedingly rare, but isolated reports of exten-
sive secondary Type A dissections recommend careful monitoring of
these patients. Dissections extending over several centimetres into
the ascending aorta or further propagating do require emergency
cardiac surgery.
The largest series, at a single high-volume centre, of iatrogenic
catheter-based or surgically induced AD (n ¼ 48) that underwent
emergency surgical repair suggested a somewhat higher incidence
following cardiac surgery than with coronary catheterization proce-
dures.
303
Early mortality was 42%, with no difference between
catheter- or cardiac surgery-induced dissections. Iatrogenic AD
during surgery occurred most frequently during aortic cannulation,
insertion of the cardioplegia cannula, or manipulation of the aorta
cross-clamp.
303
In a report from IRAD, the mortality of Type A
ESC Guidelines
2901
IAD (n ¼ 34) was similar to that for spontaneous AD, while the mor-
tality for iatrogenic Type B AD exceeded that during spontaneous
AD.
305
Several cases have been reported of IAD following transcath-
eter aortic valve implantations.
299
The incidence of this complication
is not known because, in large-scale registries and randomized trials,
it is usually included in the endpoint ‘major vascular complications’
and is not reported separately.
7. Aortic aneurysms
Aneurysm is the second most frequent disease of the aorta after
atherosclerosis. In these Guidelines, the management of aortic
aneurysms is focused largely on the lesion, and is separated into
TAAs and AAAs. This approach follows the usual dichotomy, in
part related to the fact that different specialists tend to be involved
in different locations of the disease. The pathways leading to TAA
or AAA may also differ, although this issue has not been clearly inves-
tigated, and similarities between the two locations may outweigh dis-
parities. Before presentation of the sections below, several points
should be highlighted.
First, this dichotomy into TAA ad AAA is somehow artificial, not
only because of the presence of thoraco-abdominal aneurysm, but
also because of the possibility of tandem lesions. In a recent series,
27% of patients with AAA also presented a TAA, most of whom
were women and the elderly.
306
In another large study of more
than 2000 patients with AAA, more than 20% had either synchronous
or metachronous TAA.
307
In a multicentre study screening for AAA
during TTE, in those with AAA the ascending aorta was larger,
with significantly higher rates of aortic valve disease (bicuspid
aortic valve and/or grade 3 or more aortic regurgitation: 8.0
vs. 2.6% in those without AAA; P ¼ 0.017).
308
On the other hand,
patients with AD are at risk of developing AAA, mostly unrelated
to a dissected abdominal aorta.
309
These data emphasize the
importance of a full assessment of the aorta and the aortic valve in
patients with aortic aneurysms, both at baseline and also during
follow-up.
Second, the presence of aortic aneurysm may be associated with
other locations of aneurysms. Iliac aneurysms are generally detected
during aortic imaging, but other locations, such as popliteal aneur-
ysms, may be missed. There are some discrepancies regarding the co-
existence of peripheral aneurysms in patients with AAA, but a preva-
lence as high as 14% of either femoral or popliteal aneurysm has been
reported.
310
These locations are accessible for ultrasound imaging
and should be considered in the general work-up of patients with
AAA, along with screening for peripheral artery disease, a frequent
comorbidity in this setting. Data on the co-existence of peripheral
aneurysms in the case of TAA are scarce.
Third, patients with aortic aneurysm are at increased risk of car-
diovascular events, mostly unrelated to the aneurysm, but plausibly
related to common risk factors (e.g. smoking or hypertension) and
pathways (e.g. inflammation), as well as the increased risk of cardio-
vascular comorbidities at the time of aneurysm diagnosis.
311
Indeed,
the 10-year risk of mortality from any other cardiovascular cause
(e.g. myocardial infarction or stroke) may be as high as 15 times
the risk of aorta-related death in patients with AAA.
54
Even after
successful repair, patients with TAA or AAA remain at increased
risk for cardiovascular events.
311
While no randomized, clinical
trial (RCT) has yet specifically addressed the medical treatment
of these patients to improve their general cardiovascular prognosis,
it is common sense to advocate the implementation of general rules
and treatments for secondary cardiovascular prevention, beyond
specific therapies targeting the aneurysmal aorta as developed
below.
Recommendations in patients with aortic aneurysm
Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
When an aortic aneurysm is identified at any
location, assessment of the entire aorta and
aortic valve is recommended at baseline and
during follow-up.
I
C
In cases of aneurysm of the abdominal aorta,
duplex ultrasound for screening of peripheral
artery disease and peripheral aneurysms
should be considered.
IIa
C
Patients with aortic aneurysm are at
increased risk of cardiovascular disease:
general principles of cardiovascular
prevention should be considered.
IIa
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
7.1 Thoracic aortic aneurysms
TAA encompasses a wide range of locations and aetiologies, the most
frequent being degenerative aneurysm of the ascending aorta.
7.1.1 Diagnosis
Patients with TAA are most often asymptomatic and the diagnosis is
made following imaging, performed either for other investigative
reasons or for screening purposes. The usefulness of screening
patients at risk is well recognized in the case of Marfan syndrome.
In patients with a BAV, the value of screening first-degree relatives
is more debatable but can be considered.
312
TAA is less frequently
revealed by clinical signs of compression, chest pain, an aortic
valve murmur, or during a complication (i.e. embolism, AD, or
rupture).
7.1.2 Anatomy
In Marfan syndrome, aortic enlargement is generally maximal at the
sinuses of Valsalva, responsible for annulo-aortic ectasia. This
pattern is also seen in patients without Marfan phenotype. In patients
with BAV, three enlargement patterns are described, according to
whether the maximal aortic diameter is at the level of the sinuses
of Valsalva, the supracoronary ascending aorta, or the sinotubular
junction level (cylindrical shape). There is a relationship between
the morphology of the ascending aorta and the valve fusion
pattern.
313
7.1.3 Evaluation
Once aortic dilation is suspected, based on echocardiography and/or
chest X-ray, CT or MRI (with or without contrast) is required to
adequately visualize the entire aorta and identify the affected parts.
ESC Guidelines
2902
Key decisions regarding management of aortic aneurysms depend on
their size. Hence, care must be taken to measure the diameter per-
pendicular to the longitudinal axis. A search should also be made
for co-existing IMH, PAU, and branch vessel involvement of aneurys-
mal disease.
TTE, CT, and MRI should be performed with appropriate techni-
ques and the consistency of their findings checked. This is of particu-
lar importance when diameters are borderline for the decision to
proceed to intervention, and to assess enlargement rates during
follow-up (see section 4). Follow-up modalities are detailed in
section 13.
7.1.4 Natural history
Dimensions and growth rates of the normal aorta are described in
section 3.
7.1.4.1 Aortic growth in familial thoracic aortic aneurysms
Familial TAAs grow faster, up to 2.1 mm/year (combined ascending
and descending TAA). Syndromic TAA growth rates also vary. In
patients with Marfan syndrome, the TAA growth is on average at
0.5 – 1 mm/year, whereas TAAs in patients with Loeys-Dietz syn-
drome (LDS) can grow even faster than 10 mm/year, resulting in
death at a mean age of 26 years.
85
,
314
–
316
7.1.4.2 Descending aortic growth
In general, TAAs of the descending aorta grow faster (at 3 mm/year)
than those in ascending aorta (1 mm/year).
317
In patients with
Marfan syndrome with TAA, the mean growth rate after aortic
valve and proximal aorta surgery for AD was 0.58 + 0.5 mm/year
for distal descending aortas. Dissection, urgent procedure, and
hypertension were associated with larger distal aortic diameters
at late follow-up and with more significant aortic growth over
time.
318
7.1.4.3 Risk of aortic dissection
There is a rapid increase in the risk of dissection or rupture when the
aortic diameter is .60 mm for the ascending aorta and .70 mm for
the descending aorta.
266
Although dissection may occur in patients
with a small aorta, the individual risk is very low.
7.1.5 Interventions
7.1.5.1 Ascending aortic aneurysms
Indications for surgery are based mainly on aortic diameter and
derived from findings on natural history regarding the risk of com-
plications weighed against the risk of elective surgery. Surgery
should be performed in patients with Marfan syndrome, who
have a maximal aortic diameter
≥50 mm.
319
A lower threshold
of 45 mm can be considered in patients with additional risk
factors, including family history of dissection, size increase
.3 mm/year (in repeated examinations using the same technique
and confirmed by another technique), severe aortic regurgitation,
or desire for pregnancy.
312
Patients with Marfanoid manifestations
due to connective tissue disease, without complete Marfan criteria,
should be treated as Marfan patients. Earlier interventions have
been proposed for aortic diameters .42 mm in patients with
LDS.
8
However, the underlying evidence is self-contradictory and
the Task Force chose not to recommend a different threshold
from Marfan syndrome.
320
,
321
Patients with Ehlers-Danlos syn-
drome are exposed to a high risk of aortic complications,
but no data are available to propose a specific threshold for
intervention.
Surgery should be performed in patients with a BAV, who have a
maximal aortic diameter
≥55 mm; these face a lower risk of compli-
cations than in Marfan.
322
A lower threshold of 50 mm can be consid-
ered in patients with additional risk factors, such as family history,
systemic hypertension, coarctation of the aorta, or increase in
aortic diameter .3 mm/year, and also according to age, body size,
comorbidities, and type of surgery. Regardless of aetiology, surgery
should be performed in patients who have a maximal aortic diameter
≥55 mm.
The rate of enlargement, above which surgery should be consid-
ered, is a matter of debate. It should weigh prognostic implications
against the accuracy of the measurements and their reproducibility.
Rather than sticking to a given progression rate, it is necessary to
rely on investigations performed using appropriate techniques with
measurements taken at the same level of the aorta. This can be
checked by analysing images and not just by considering the dimen-
sions mentioned in the report. When rates of progression have an
impact on the therapeutic decision, they should be assessed using al-
ternative techniques (e.g. TTE and CT or MRI) and their consistency
checked.
In borderline cases, the individual and family history, patient age,
and the anticipated risk of the procedure should be taken into consid-
eration. In patients with small body size, in particular in patients with
Turner syndrome, an indexed aortic diameter of 27.5 mm/m
2
body
surface area should be considered.
323
Lower thresholds of aortic dia-
meters may also be considered in low-risk patients, if valve repair,
performed in an experienced centre, is likely.
34
In these borderline
cases, decisions shared by the patient and the surgical team are im-
portant, following a thorough discussion regarding pros and
contras for an earlier intervention, and a transparent presentation
of surgical team’s results.
For patients who have an indication for surgery on the aortic valve,
lower thresholds can be used for concomitant aortic replacement
(.45 mm) depending on age, body size, aetiology of valvular
disease, and intraoperative shape and thickness of the ascending
aorta. Surgical indications for aortic valve disease are addressed in
specific guidelines.
312
The choice between a total replacement of
the ascending aorta—including the aortic root—by coronary
re-implantation, and a segmental replacement of the aorta above
the sinotubular junction, depends on the diameters at different
sites of the aorta, in particular the sinuses of Valsalva. In cases of
total replacement, the choice between a valve-sparing intervention
and a composite graft with a valve prosthesis depends on the analysis
of aortic valve function and anatomy, the size and site of TAA, life ex-
pectancy, desired anticoagulation status, and the experience of the
surgical team.
7.1.5.2 Aortic arch aneuryms
Indications for surgical treatment of aneurysms of the aortic arch
raise particular issues, due to the hazards relating to brain
ESC Guidelines
2903
protection. In addition, few data exist on the natural history of iso-
lated aortic arch aneurysms, since they are often associated with
adjacent aneuryms of the ascending or descending aorta.
Surgery should be considered in patients who have an aortic arch
aneurysm with a maximal diameter
≥55 mm or who present symp-
toms or signs of local compression. Decision-making should weigh
the perioperative risks, since aortic arch replacement is associated
with higher rates of mortality and stroke than in surgery of the
ascending and descending aorta. Indications for partial or total
aortic arch replacement are more frequently seen in patients who
have an indication for surgery on an adjacent aneurysm of the ascend-
ing or descending aorta.
Arch vessel transposition (debranching) and TEVAR might be
considered as an alternative to conventional surgery in certain clin-
ical situations, especially when there is reluctance to expose
patients to hypothermic circulatory arrest; however, especially
after total arch vessel transposition, as well as in patients with the
underlying diagnosis of acute Type B AD, the risk of retrograde
Type A AD as a direct consequence of the procedure is elevated
and should be weighed against the remaining risk of conventional
surgery.
105
,
117
,
324
,
325
7.1.5.3 Descending aortic aneurysms
The treatment of descending aortic aneurysms has been
re-orientated with the development of TEVAR using stent grafts.
No randomized trials exist to guide the choice between open
surgery and TEVAR. From non-randomized comparisons and
meta-analyses, early mortality is lower after TEVAR than open
surgery.
326
–
330
Early mortality depends on the extent of repair
and patient characteristics, in particular age and comorbidities.
Overall mid-term survival does not differ between TEVAR and
surgery.
327
,
328
During follow-up, there is a contrast between low
mortality related to aortic complications and relatively high overall
mortality, especially from cardiopulmonary causes.
331
,
332
TEVAR should be considered in patients who have a descending
TAA with a maximal diameter
≥55 mm. When surgery is the only
option, it should be considered in patients with a maximal diameter
≥60 mm. Lower thresholds can be considered in patients with
Marfan syndrome. Indications for treatment and the choice
between TEVAR and open surgery should be made by a multidiscip-
linary team with expertise in both methods, taking into consider-
ation patient age, comorbidities, and life expectancy, and
conducting a thorough analysis of the arterial tree to assess the
feasibility and presumed risks of each technique: extent and size
of aneurysm, associated atheroma, collaterals, and size and length
of the landing zone for endovascular grafting and vascular
access.
11
,
333
The lack of information on long-term results of
TEVAR should be kept in mind, in particular in young patients.
Surgery and TEVAR may be combined in hybrid approaches.
In cases of Marfan disease, surgery should be preferred over
TEVAR. There is no evidence supporting any use of TEVAR in patients
with connective tissue disease, except in emergency situations in
order to get initial stabilization as a bridge to definitive surgical
therapy.
334
,
335
Recommendations on interventions on ascending aortic
aneurysms
Recommendations
Class
a
Level
b
Surgery is indicated in patients who have
aortic root aneurysm, with maximal
aortic diameter
c
50 mm for patients
with Marfan syndrome.
I
C
Surgery should be considered in patients
who have aortic root aneurysm, with
maximal ascending aortic diameters:
•
45 mm for patients with
Marfan syndrome with risk
factors.
d
•
50 mm for patients with
bicuspid valve with risk
factors.
e,f
•
55 mm for other patients
with no elastopathy.
g,h
Lower thresholds for intervention may
be considered according to body surface
area in patients of small stature or in the
case of rapid progression, aortic valve
regurgitation, planned pregnancy, and
patient’s preference.
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