Recommendations
Class
a
Level
b
Ref
c
It is recommended that diameters
be measured at pre-specified
anatomical landmarks,
perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis.
I
C
In the case of repetitive imaging of
the aorta over time, to assess
change in diameter, it is
recommended that the imaging
modality with the lowest
iatrogenic risk be used.
I
C
In the case of repetitive imaging of
the aorta over time to assess
change in diameter, it is
recommended that the same
imaging modality be used, with a
similar method of measurement.
I
C
It is recommended that all relevant
aortic diameters and abnormalities
be reported according to the
aortic segmentation.
I
C
It is recommended that renal
function, pregnancy, and history of
allergy to contrast media be
assessed, in order to select the
optimal imaging modality of the
aorta with minimal radiation
exposure, except for emergency
cases.
I
C
The risk of radiation exposure
should be assessed, especially in
younger adults and in those
undergoing repetitive imaging.
IIa
B
72
Aortic diameters may be indexed
to the body surface area, especially
for the outliers in body size.
IIb
B
19,20,
46
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
4.4 Assessment of aortic stiffness
Arterial walls stiffen with age. Aortic stiffness is one of the earliest de-
tectable manifestations of adverse structural and functional changes
within the vessel wall, and is increasingly recognized as a surrogate
endpoint for cardiovascular disease. Aortic stiffness has independent
predictive value for all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, fatal and
non-fatal coronary events, and fatal strokes in patients with various
levels of cardiovascular risk, with a higher predictive value in subjects
with a higher baseline cardiovascular risk.
92
,
93
Several non-invasive
methods are currently used to assess aortic stiffness, such as pulse
wave velocity and augmentation index. Pulse wave velocity is calcu-
lated as the distance travelled by the pulse wave, divided by the
time taken to travel the distance. Increased arterial stiffness results
in increased speed of the pulse wave in the artery. Carotid-femoral
pulse wave velocity is the ‘gold standard’ for measuring aortic stiff-
ness, given its simplicity, accuracy, reproducibility, and strong predict-
ive value for adverse outcomes. Recent hypertension guidelines have
recommended measurement of arterial stiffness as part of a compre-
hensive evaluation of patients with hypertension, in order to detect
large artery stiffening with high predictive value and reproducibility.
94
Following a recent expert consensus statement in the 2013 European
Society of Hypertension (ESH)/ESC Guidelines,
94
a threshold for the
pulse wave velocity of of .10 m/s has been suggested, which used
the corrected carotid-to-femoral distance, taking into account the
20% shorter true anatomical distance travelled by the pressure
wave (i.e. 0.8
× 12 m/s or 10 m/s).
84
The main limitation in the inter-
pretation of pulse wave velocity is that it is significantly influenced by
blood pressure. Because elevated blood pressure increases the arter-
ial wall tension, blood pressure becomes a confounding variable
when comparing the degree of structural arterial stiffening.
5. Treatment options
5.1 Principles of medical therapy
The main aim of medical therapy in this condition is to reduce shear
stress on the diseased segment of the aorta by reducing blood pres-
sure and cardiac contractility. A large number of patients with aortic
diseases have comorbidities such as coronary artery disease, chronic
kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, etc.
Therefore treatment and prevention strategies must be similar to
those indicated for the above diseases. Cessation of smoking is im-
portant, as studies have shown that self-reported current smoking
induced a significantly faster AAA expansion (by approximately
0.4 mm/year).
95
Moderate physical activity probably prevents the
progression of aortic atherosclerosis but data are sparse. To
prevent blood pressure spikes, competitive sports should be
avoided in patients with an enlarged aorta.
In cases of AD, treatment with intravenous beta-blocking agents is
initiated to reduce the heart rate and lower the systolic blood pres-
sure to 100 – 120 mm Hg, but aortic regurgitation should be
excluded. Other agents may be useful in achieving the target.
In chronic conditions, blood pressure should be controlled below
140/90 mm Hg, with lifestyle changes and use of antihypertensive
drugs, if necessary.
94
An ideal treatment would be the one that
reverses the formation of an aneurysm. In patients with Marfan syn-
drome, prophylactic use of beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting
enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, and angiotensin II receptor blocker seem
to be able to reduce either the progression of the aortic dilation or
the occurrence of complications.
95
–
98
However, there is no evi-
dence for the efficacy of these treatments in aortic disease of other
aetiologies. Small observational studies suggest that statins may
inhibit the expansion of aneurysms.
99
,
100
Use of statins has been asso-
ciated with improved survival after AAA repair, with a more than
ESC Guidelines
2884
threefold reduction in the risk of cardiovascular death.
101
A trial that
has recently begun will show whether or not the use of statin treat-
ment following EVAR will result in a favourable outcome.
102
5.2 Endovascular therapy
5.2.1 Thoracic endovascular aortic repair
5.2.1.1 Technique
Thoracic endovascular aortic repair aims at excluding an aortic lesion
(i.e. aneurysm or FL after AD) from the circulation by the implant-
ation of a membrane-covered stent-graft across the lesion, in order
to prevent further enlargement and ultimate aortic rupture.
Careful pre-procedural planning is essential for a successful
TEVAR procedure. Contrast-enhanced CT represents the imaging
modality of choice for planning TEVAR, taking ,3 mm ‘slices’ of
the proximal supra-aortic branches down to the femoral arteries.
The diameter (,40 mm) and length (
≥20 mm) of the healthy prox-
imal and distal landing zones are evaluated to assess the feasibility of
TEVAR, along with assessment of the length of the lesion and its re-
lationship to side branches and the iliofemoral access route.
In TAA, the stent-graft diameter should exceed the reference
aortic diameter at the landing zones by at least 10 – 15%. In patients
with Type B AD, the stent-graft is implanted across the proximal
entry tear, to obstruct blood flow into the FL, depressurize the FL,
and induce a process of aortic remodelling with shrinkage of the FL
and enlargement of the true lumen (TL). In contrast to TAA,
almost no oversizing of the stent-graft is applied.
11
In situations in-
volving important aortic side branches (e.g. left subclavian artery),
TEVAR is often preceded by limited surgical revascularization of
these branches (the ‘hybrid’ approach). Another option is a surgical
de-branching or the use of fenestrated and branched endografts or
the ‘chimney technique’. An alternative may be a single, branched
stent-graft.
TEVAR is performed by retrograde transarterial advancement of a
large delivery device (up to 24 F) carrying the collapsed self-
expandable stent-graft. Arterial access is obtained either surgically
or by the percutaneous approach, using suture-mediated access
site closure. From the contralateral femoral side or from a brachial/
radial access, a pigtail catheter is advanced for angiography. The stent-
graft is delivered over a stiff guide wire. In AD, it may be challenging to
navigate the guide wire into a narrow TL, which is essential for stent-
graft placement.
8
Either TOE or IVUS can be helpful in identifying the
correct position of the guide wire within the TL.
8
When the target
position is reached, the blood pressure is reduced—either pharma-
cologically (nitroprusside or adenosine, ,80 mm Hg systolic) or
using rapid right ventricular pacing—to avoid downstream displace-
ment, and the stent-graft is then deployed. Completion angiography
is performed to detect any proximal Type I endoleak (an insufficient
proximal seal), which usually mandates immediate treatment
(Figure
3
). More technical details are provided in the recently pub-
lished joint position paper of the ESC and the European Association
for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery.
11
5.2.1.2 Complications
In TEVAR, vascular complications at the puncture site, as well as
aortic and neurological complications, and/or endoleaks have been
reported. Ideally, access site complications may be avoided by
careful pre-procedural planning. Paraparesis/paraplegia and stroke
rates range between 0.8 – 1.9% and 2.1 – 3.5%, respectively, and
appear lower than those for open surgery.
92
In order to avoid
spinal cord ischaemia, vessels supplying the major spinal cord
should not be covered in the elective setting (i.e. no overstenting
of the left subclavian artery).
103
In high-risk patients, preventive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage
can be beneficial, as it has proven efficacy in spinal cord protection
during open thoraco-abdominal aneurysm surgery.
104
Reversal of
paraplegia can be achieved by the immediate initiation of CSF drain-
age and pharmacological elevation of blood pressure to .90 mm Hg
mean arterial pressure. Hypotensive episodes during the procedure
should be avoided. Retrograde dissection of the ascending aorta after
TEVAR is reported in 1.3% (0.7—2.5%) of patients.
105
Endoleak
describes perfusion of the excluded aortic pathology and occurs
both in thoracic and abdominal (T)EVAR. Different types of endo-
leaks are illustrated in Figure
3
. Type I and Type III endoleaks are
regarded as treatment failures and warrant further treatment to
prevent the continuing risk of rupture, while Type II endoleaks
(Figure
3
) are normally managed conservatively by a ‘wait-and-watch’
strategy to detect aneurysmal expansion, except for supra-aortic ar-
teries.
11
Endoleaks Types IV and V are indirect and have a benign
course. Treatment is required in cases of aneurysm expansion.
It is important to note that plain chest radiography can be useful as
an adjunct to detect material fatigue of the stent-graft and to follow
‘stent-graft’ and ‘no stent-graft’-induced changes in width, length
and angulation of the thoracic aorta.
5.2.2 Abdominal endovascular aortic repair
5.2.2.1 Technique
Endovascular aortic repair is performed to prevent infrarenal AAA
rupture. Similarly to TEVAR, careful pre-procedural planning by
contrast-enhanced CT is essential. The proximal aortic neck
(defined as the normal aortic segment between the lowest renal
artery and the most cephalad extent of the aneurysm) should have
a length of at least 10 – 15 mm and should not exceed 32 mm in diam-
eter. Angulation above 608 of the proximal neck increases the risk of
device migration and endoleak. The iliofemoral axis has to be evalu-
ated by CT, since large delivery devices (14 – 24 F) are being used. An-
eurysmal disease of the iliac arteries needs extension of the stent graft
to the external iliac artery. Bilateral hypogastric occlusion—due to
coverage of internal iliac arteries—should be avoided as it may
result in buttock claudication, erectile dysfunction, and visceral is-
chaemia or even spinal cord ischemia.
Currently several stent-grafts are available, mostly comprising a
self-expanding nitinol skeleton covered with a polyester or polytetra-
fluroethylene membrane. To provide an optimal seal, the stent-graft
diameter should be oversized by 10 – 20% according to the aortic
diameter at the proximal neck. Bifurcated stent-grafts are used in
most cases; tube grafts may only be used in patients with localized
pseudoaneurysms of the infrarenal aorta. Aorto-mono-iliac stent-
grafts, with subsequent surgical femoro-femoral crossover bypass,
may be time-saving in patients with acute rupture as these do not
require the contralateral limb cannulation.
Choice of anaesthesia (general vs. conscious sedation) should
be decided on a case-by-case basis. The stent-graft main body is
introduced from the ipsilateral side, over a stiff guide wire. The
contralateral access is used for a pigtail catheter for intraprocedural
ESC Guidelines
2885
angiography. Fixation of the stent-graft may be either suprarenal or
infrarenal, depending on the device used. After deployment of the
main body, the contralateral limb is cannulated from the contralateral
access or, in rare cases, from a crossover approach. The contralateral
limb is introduced and implanted. After placement of all device com-
ponents, stent expansion at sealing zones and connections are opti-
mized with balloon moulding. Completion angiography is performed
to check for the absence of endoleak and to confirm patency of all
stent-graft components.
5.2.2.2 Complications
Immediate conversion to open surgery is required in approximately
0.6% of patients.
106
Endoleak is the most common complication of
EVAR. Type I and Type III endoleaks demand correction (proximal
cuff or extension), while Type II endoleak may seal spontaneously
in about 50% of cases. The rates of vascular injury after EVAR are
low (approximately 0 – 3%), due to careful pre-procedural planning.
The incidence of stent-graft infection after EVAR is ,1%, with high
mortality.
Type I
Type Ia
Type Ib
Type II
Type III
Type IV
Type V
Figure 3
Classification of endoleaks.
Type I: Leak at graft attachment site above, below, or between graft components (Ia: proximal attachment site; Ib: distal attachment site).
Type II: Aneurysm sac filling retrogradely via single (IIa) or multiple branch vessels (IIb).
Type III: Leak through mechanical defect in graft, mechanical failure of the stent-graft by junctional separation of the modular components (IIIa), or
fractures or holes in the endograft (IIIb).
Type IV: Leak through graft fabric as a result of graft porosity.
Type V: Continued expansion of aneurysm sac without demonstrable leak on imaging (endotension, controversial).
(Modified from White GH, May J, Petrasek P. Semin Interv Cardiol. 2000;5:35 – 46
107
).
ESC Guidelines
2886
Recommendation for (thoracic) endovascular aortic
repair ((T)EVAR)
Recommendations
Class
a
Level
b
It is recommended that the indication for
TEVAR or EVAR be decided on an individual
basis, according to anatomy, pathology,
comorbidity and anticipated durability, of any
repair, using a multidisciplinary approach.
I
C
A sufficient proximal and distal landing zone
of at least 2 cm is recommended for the safe
deployment and durable fixation of TEVAR.
I
C
I
C
During stent graft placement, invasive blood
pressure monitoring and control (either
pharmacologically or by rapid pacing) is
recommended.
I
C
Preventive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage
should be considered in high-risk patients.
IIa
C
In case of aortic aneurysm, it is recommended
to select a stent-graft with a diameter
exceeding the diameter of the landing zones
by at least 10–15% of the reference aorta.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
5.3 Surgery
5.3.1 Ascending aorta
The main principle of surgery for ascending aortic aneurysms is that of
preventing the risk of dissection or rupture by restoring the normal
dimension of the ascending aorta. If the aneurysm is proximally
limited to the sinotubular junction and distally to the aortic arch, re-
section of the aneurysm and supra-commissural implantation of a
tubular graft is performed under a short period of aortic clamping,
with the distal anastomosis just below the aortic arch. External wrap-
ping or reduction ascending aortoplasty (the aorta is not resected but
is remodelled externally by a mesh graft) is, in general, not recom-
mended but may be used as an alternative to reduce the aortic diam-
eter when aortic cannulation and cardiopulmonary bypass are either
not possible or not desirable. This may be the case in elderly patients
with calcified aorta, in high-risk patients, or as an adjunct to other
off-pump procedures.
If the aneurysm extends proximally below the sinotubular junction
and one or more aortic sinuses are dilated, the surgical repair is
guided by the extent of involvement of the aortic annulus and the
aortic valve. In the case of a normal tricuspid aortic valve, without
aortic regurgitation or central regurgitation due to annular dilation,
an aortic valve-preserving technique should be performed. This
includes the classic David operation with re-implantation of the
aortic valve into a tubular graft or, preferably, into a graft with sinus
functionality (Web Figure 9). The graft is anchored at the level of
the skeletonized aortic annulus and the aortic valve is re-suspended
within the graft. The procedure is completed by re-implantation of
the coronary ostia. Alternatively, the classic or modified Yacoub
technique may be applied, which only replaces the aortic sinus and
is therefore somewhat more susceptible to late aortic annular dila-
tion. Additional aortic annuloplasty, to reinforce the aortic annulus
by using annular sutures or rings, can address this problem. In
expert centres, the David technique may also be applied to patients
with bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) and patients with aortic regurgitation
caused by factors other than pure annular dilation. Reconstructive
aortic root surgery, preserving the tricuspid valve, aims for restor-
ation of natural haemodynamics. In patients with BAV, blood flow is
altered and will remain so after repair. If there is any doubt that a
durable repair can be achieved—or in the presence of aortic sclerosis
or stenosis—root replacement should be performed with either a
mechanical composite graft or a xenograft, according to the patient’s
age and potential contraindications for long-term anticoagulation.
In the case of distal aneurysmal extension to the aortic arch, leaving
no neck-space for clamping the aorta at a non-diseased portion, an
open distal anastomosis with the aortic arch or a hemiarch replace-
ment should be performed. This technique allows the inspection of
the aortic arch and facilitates a very distal anastomosis. A short
period of antegrade cerebral perfusion and hypothermic lower
body circulatory arrest are required, as the aortic arch needs to be
opened and partially resected. The risk of paraplegia in aortic
surgery is highly dependent on speed of repair and cross-clamp time.
Surgical mortality for isolated elective replacement of the ascend-
ing aorta (including the aortic root) ranges from 1.6 – 4.8% and is de-
pendent largely on age and other well-known cardiovascular risk
factors at the time of operation.
108
Mortality and stroke rates for
elective surgery for ascending/arch aneurysms are in the range of
2.4 – 3.0%.
109
For patients under 55 years of age, mortality and
stroke rates are as low as 1.2% and 0.6 – 1.2%, respectively.
110
5.3.2 Aortic arch
Several procedures and techniques have significantly lowered the
inherent risk of aortic arch surgery, both for aneurysms and ADs. Im-
portantly, the continuous use of antegrade cerebral perfusion,
98
–
101
including the assessment of transcranial oxygen saturation,
102
has
proven itself as safe cerebral protection, even in prolonged periods
(.60 min) of circulatory arrest. The axillary artery should be consid-
ered as first choice for cannulation for surgery of the aortic arch and
in AD. Innovative arch prostheses, including branching for
supra-aortic vessel reconnection,
108
have made the timing of arch re-
construction more predictable, allowing moderate (26 – 288C)
rather than deep (20 – 228C) hypothermia under extracorporeal cir-
culation.
111
,
112
This is the case for the majority of reconstructions, in-
cluding acute and chronic AD, requiring total arch replacement and
arrest times from 40 – 60 minutes. The precautions for this procedure
resemble those formerly applied for partial arch repair, requiring
much shorter periods of circulatory arrest (,20 minutes). Various
extents and variants of aortic rerouting (left subclavian, left
common carotid and finally brachiocephalic trunk, autologous vs.
alloplastic) might also be used. Nowadays, many arch replacements
are re-operations for dilated aneurysms after Type A AD following
limited ascending aorta replacement or proximal arch repair per-
formed in emergency.
Extensive repair including graft replacement of the ascending aorta
and aortic arch and integrated stent grafting of the descending
aorta
108
(‘frozen elephant trunk’) was introduced as a single-stage
procedure.
103
,
105
The ‘frozen elephant trunk’ is increasingly applied
for this disease entity if complete ascending-, arch-, and descending
AD are diagnosed in otherwise uncomplicated patients.
113
–
117
Ori-
ginally designed for repair of chronic aneurysm, the hybrid approach,
consisting of a single graft, is also applied, more often now in the
setting of acute dissection (Web Figures 10 and 11).
118
–
121
ESC Guidelines
2887
5.3.3 Descending aorta
The surgical approach to the descending aorta is a left thoracotomy
between the fourth and seventh intercostal spaces, depending on the
extension of the aortic pathology (Web Figure 12). Established
methods for operation of the descending aorta include the left
heart bypass technique, the partial bypass, and the operation in
deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. The simple ‘clamp and sew’
technique may not be advisable because the risk of post-operative
neurological deficit, mesenteric and renal ischaemia is significant
when the aortic cross-clamp procedure exceeds 30 minutes.
122
,
123
In contrast, the left heart bypass technique provides distal aortic per-
fusion (by means of a centrifugal pump) during aortic clamping, which
drains through cannulation of the left atrial appendage or preferably
the left pulmonary veins and returns blood through cannulation of
the distal aorta or femoral artery. A similar technique is the partial
bypass technique, where cardiopulmonary bypass is initiated via can-
nulation of the femoral artery and vein and ensures perfusion and
oxygenation of the organs distal to the aortic clamp. In contrast to
the left heart bypass technique, this method requires full hepariniza-
tion due to the cardiopulmonary bypass system used.
124
The technique of deep hypothermic circulatory arrest has to be
used when clamping of the descending aorta distal to the left subclavian
artery—or between the carotid artery and the left subclavian artery—
is not feasible because the aortic lesion includes the aortic arch. At a
core temperature of 188C the proximal anastomosis is performed;
thereafter the Dacron prosthesis is clamped and the supra-aortic
branches are perfused via a side-graft with 2.5 L/min. After accomplish-
ment of the distal anastomosis, the clamp is removed from the pros-
thesis and complete perfusion and re-warming are started.
124
5.3.4 Thoraco-abdominal aorta
When the disease affects both the descending thoracic and abdominal
aorta, the surgical approach is a left thoracotomy extended to parame-
dian laparotomy. This access ensures exposure of the whole aorta, from
the left subclavian artery to the iliac arteries (Web Figures 12 and 13).
When the aortic disease starts distal to the aortic arch and clamping is
feasible, the left heart bypass technique is a proven method that can
be performed in experienced centres with excellent results.
125
–
128
The advantage of this method is that it maintains distal aortic perfu-
sion during aortic cross-clamping, including selective perfusion of
mesenteric visceral and renal arteries.
129
–
131
Owing to the protect-
ive effect of hypothermia, other adjunctive methods are unnecessary.
The risk of paraplegia after thoraco-abdominal repair is in the range
of 6 – 8%,
131
,
132
and procedural as well as systemic measures are
beneficial in preventing this disastrous complication.
133
,
134
These
measures include permissive systemic hypothermia (348C), re-
attachment of distal intercostal arteries between T8 and L1, and
the pre-operative placement of cerebrospinal fluid drainage. Drain-
age reduces the rate of paraplegia in patients with thoraco-abdominal
aneuryms and its continuation up to 72 hours post-operatively is
recommended, to prevent delayed onset of paraplegia.
135
–
138
5.3.5 Abdominal aorta
Open abdominal aortic repair usually involves a standard median lapar-
otomy, but may also be performed through a left retroperitoneal
approach. The aorta is dissected, in particular at the aortic neck
and the distal anastomotic sites. After heparinization, the aorta is
cross-clamped above, below, or in between the renal arteries,
depending on the proximal extent of the aneurysm. Renal ischaemia
should not exceed 30 minutes, otherwise preventive measures
should be taken (i.e. cold renal perfusion). The aneurysmal aorta is
replaced either by a tube or bifurcated graft, according to the extent
of aneurysmal disease into the iliac arteries. If the common iliac arteries
are involved, the graft is anastomosed to the external iliac arteries and
revascularization of the internal iliac arteries provided via separate
bypass grafts.
Colonic ischaemia is a potential problem in the repair of AAA.
A patent inferior mesenteric artery with pulsatile back-bleeding sug-
gests a competent mesenteric collateral circulation and, consequent-
ly, the inferior mesenteric artery may be ligated; however, if the artery
is patent and only poor back-bleeding present, re-implantation into
the aortic graft must be considered, to prevent left colonic ischaemia.
A re-implantation of the inferior mesenteric artery may also be
necessary if one internal iliac artery has to be ligated.
The excluded aneurysm is not resected, but is closed over the graft,
which has a haemostatic effect and ensures that the duodenum is not
in contact with the graft, as this may lead to erosion and a possible
subsequent aorto-enteric fistula.
Recommendations for surgical techniques in aortic
disease
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