Recommendations
Class
a
Level
b
Ref.
c
Historyand clinical assessment
In all patients with suspected
AAS, pre-test probability
assessment is recommended,
according to the patient’s
condition, symptoms, and
clinical features.
I
B
142
Laboratory testing
In case of suspicion of AAS,
the interpretation of
biomarkers should always be
considered along with the pre-
test clinical probability.
IIa
C
In case of low clinical
probability of AAS, negative D-
dimer levels should be
considered as ruling out the
diagnosis.
IIa
B
154–156,159
In case of intermediate clinical
probability of AAS with a
positive (point-of-care) D-
dimer test, further imaging
tests should be considered.
IIa
B
154,159
In patients with high probability
(risk score 2 or 3) of AD,
testing of D-dimers is not
recommended.
III
C
Imaging
TTE is recommended as an
initial imaging investigation.
I
C
In unstable
d
patients with a
suspicion of AAS, the following
imaging modalities are
recommended according to
local availability and expertise:
•
TOE
I
C
•
CT
I
C
Recommendations
Class
a
Level
b
Ref.
c
•
CT
I
C
•
MRI
I
C
•
TOE
IIa
C
In case of initially negative
imaging with persistence of
suspicion of AAS, repetitive
imaging (CT or MRI) is
recommended.
I
C
IIb
C
I
C
In stable patients with a
suspicion of AAS, the
following imaging modalities
are recommended (or should
be considered) according to
local availability and expertise:
Chest X-ray may be
considered in cases of low
clinical probability of AAS.
In case of uncomplicated
Type B AD treated medically,
repeated imaging (CT or
MRI)
e
during the first days is
recommended.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
d
Unstable means very severe pain, tachycardia, tachypnoea, hypotension, cyanosis,
and/or shock.
e
Preferably MRI in young patients, to limit radiation exposure.
AAS ¼ abdominal aortic aneurysm; AD ¼ aortic dissection; CT ¼ computed
tomography; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging; TOE ¼ transoesophageal
echocardiography; TTE ¼ transthoracic echocardiography.
ACUTE CHEST PAIN
High probability (score 2-3)
or typical chest pain
Medical history + clinical examination + ECG
STEMI
a
: see ESC guidelines
169
HAEMODYNAMIC STATE
UNSTABLE
Low probability (score 0-1)
TTE + TOE/CT°
STABLE
AAS
confirmed
AAS
excluded
Consider
alternate
diagnosis
D-dimers
d,e
+ TTE + Chest X-ray
TTE
Consider
alternate
diagnosis
a
STEMI can be associated with AAS in rare cases.
b
Pending local availability, patient characteristics, and physician experience.
c
Proof of type-A AD by the presence of flap, aortic regurgitation, and/or pericardial effusion.
d
Preferably point-of-care, otherwise classical.
e
Also troponin to detect non–ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction.
No argument
for AD
Signs
of AD
Widened
media-
stinum
Definite
Type A -AD
c
Inconclusive
Refer on emergency
to surgical team and
pre-operative TOE
CT (or TOE)
AAS
confirmed
Consider
alternate
diagnosis
repeat CT
if necessary
AAS
confirmed
Consider
alternate
diagnosis
CT (MRI or TOE)
b
Figure 6
Flowchart for decision-making based on pre-test sensitivity of acute aortic syndrome. AAS ¼ abdominal aortic aneurysm; AD ¼ aortic
dissection; CT ¼ computed tomography; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging; TOE ¼ transoesophageal echocardiography; TTE ¼ transthoracic
echocardiography.
ESC Guidelines
2894
6.3.7 Treatment
Whether or not the patient undergoes any intervention, medical
therapy to control pain and the haemodynamic state is essential
(see section 5.1).
6.3.7.1 Type A aortic dissection
Surgery is the treatment of choice. Acute Type A AD has a mortality
of 50% within the first 48 hours if not operated. Despite improve-
ments in surgical and anaesthetic techniques, perioperative mortality
(25%) and neurological complications (18%) remain high.
193
,
194
However, surgery reduces 1-month mortality from 90% to 30%.
The advantage of surgery over conservative therapy is particularly
obvious in the long-term follow-up.
195
Based on that evidence, all patients with Type A AD should be sent
for surgery; however, coma, shock secondary to pericardial tampon-
ade, malperfusion of coronary or peripheral arteries, and stroke are
important predictive factors for post-operative mortality. The super-
iority of surgery over conservative treatment has been reported,
even in patients with unfavourable presentations and/or major co-
morbidities. In an analysis of 936 patients with Type A AD enrolled
in the IRAD registry, up to the age of 80 years, in-hospital mortality
was significantly lower after surgical management than with
medical treatment. In octogenarians, in-hospital mortality was
lower after surgery than with conservative treatment (37.9 vs.
55.2%); however, the difference failed to reach clinical significance,
probably due to the limited sample size of participants over 80
years of age.
196
While some have reported excellent surgical and
quality-of-life outcomes in the elderly,
197
others found a higher
rate of post-operative neurological complications.
198
Based on the
current evidence, age per se should not be considered an exclusion
criterion for surgical treatment.
For optimal repair of acute Type A AD in respect of long-term
results—including risk of late death and late re-operation—the fol-
lowing points need to be addressed. In most cases of aortic insuffi-
ciency associated with acute Type A dissection, the aortic valve is
essentially normal and can be preserved by applying an aortic valve-
sparing repair of the aortic root.
199
–
203
Alternatively, given the emer-
gency situation, aortic valve replacement can be performed. In any
case, it is preferable to replace the aortic root if the dissection
involves at least one sinus of Valsalva, rather than perform a supracor-
onary ascending aorta replacement only. The latter is associated with
late dilation of the aortic sinuses and recurrence of aortic regurgita-
tion, and requires a high-risk re-operation.
202
,
203
Various techniques
exist for re-implantion of the coronary ostia or preservation of the
ostia of the coronary arteries. A current topic of debate is the
extent of aortic repair; ascending aortic replacement or hemiarch re-
placement alone is technically easier and effectively closes the entry
site but leave a large part of the diseased aorta untreated. Patients
with visceral or renal malperfusion in acute Type A AD often have
their primary entry tear in the descending aorta. These patients
might profit from extended therapies, such as ‘frozen elephant
trunk’ repair in order to close the primary entry tear and decompress
the TL. The importance of intraoperative aortoscopy and of immedi-
ate post-operative imaging—ideally in a hybrid suite—to reconfirm
or exclude the effectiveness of therapy, is obvious. In contrast,
more extensive repair, including graft replacement of the ascending
aorta and aortic arch and integrated stent grafting of the descending
aorta
103
,
105
(‘frozen elephant trunk’) as a one-stage procedure is
technically more challenging and prolongs the operation, with an
increased risk of neurological complications,
204
but offers the
advantage of a complete repair, with a low likelihood of late
re-intervention.
205
If the dissection progresses into the supra-aortic
branches, rather than the classic ‘island’ technique, end-to-end graft-
ing of all supra-aortic vessels may be considered, using individual
grafts from the arch prosthesis.
206
–
208
There is still controversy over whether surgery should be per-
formed in patients with Type A AD presenting with neurological def-
icits or coma. Although commonly associated with a poor
post-operative prognosis, recovery has been reported when rapid
brain reperfusion is achieved,
114
,
209
especially if the time between
symptom onset and arrival at the operating room is ,5 hours.
210
One major factor influencing the operative outcome is the pres-
ence of mesenteric malperfusion at presentation. Malperfusion syn-
drome occurs in up to 30% of patients with acute AD. Visceral
organ and/or limb ischaemia is caused by dynamic compression of
the TL, due to high-pressure accumulation in the FL as the result of
large proximal inflow into the thoracic aortic FL and insufficient
outflow in the distal aorta. Malperfusion may also be caused by exten-
sion of the intimal flap into the organ/peripheral arteries, resulting in
static ‘stenosis-like’ obstruction. In most cases, malperfusion is
caused by a combination of dynamic and static obstruction; therefore,
surgical/hybrid treatment should be considered for patients with
organ malperfusion. Fenestration of the intimal flap is used in patients
with dynamic malperfusion syndrome, to create a sufficient distal
communication between the TL and FL to depressurize the FL.
The classic technique comprises puncture of the intimal flap from
the TL into the FL using a Brockenborough needle using a transfe-
moral approach.
211
,
212
Puncture is performed at the level of the
maximum compression of the TL in the abdominal aorta. Intravascu-
lar ultrasound may be useful to guide puncture of the FL.
213
A 12 –
18 mm diameter balloon catheter is used to create one or several
large communications between the two lumens. An alternative tech-
nique (the ‘scissor’ technique)
214
for fenestration of the intimal flap is
based on the insertion of two stiff guide wires, one in the TL and the
other in the FL, through a single, transfemoral, 8 F sheath. The sheath
is advanced over the two guide wires from the external iliac artery up
to the visceral arteries, to create a large communication site.
Although performed with high technical success rates, fenestra-
tion alone may not completely resolve malperfusion. In a recent
series, 75% of patients undergoing fenestration required additional
endovascular interventions (e.g. stenting) for relief of ischaemia.
215
Endovascular therapy alone, to treat Type A AD, has been
attempted in highly selected cases but has not yet been validated.
216
,
217
6.3.7.2 Treatment of Type B aortic dissection
The course of Type B AD is often uncomplicated so—in the absence
of malperfusion or signs of (early) disease progression— the patient
can be safely stabilized under medical therapy alone, to control pain
and blood pressure.
6.3.7.2.1 Uncomplicated Type B aortic dissection:
6.3.7.2.1.1. Medical therapy
Patients with uncomplicated Type B AD receive medical therapy to
control pain, heart rate, and blood pressure, with close surveillance
ESC Guidelines
2895
to identify signs of disease progression and/or malperfusion (see section
5.1). Repetitive imaging is necessary, preferably with MRI or CT.
6.3.7.2.1.2. Thoracic endovascular aortic repair
Thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR) aims at stabilization of
the dissected aorta, to prevent late complications by inducing aortic re-
modelling processes. Obliterating the proximal intimal tear by implant-
ation of a membrane-covered stent-graft redirects blood flow to the
TL, thus improving distal perfusion. Thrombosis of the FL results in
shrinkage and conceptually prevents aneurysmal degeneration and, ul-
timately, its rupture over time. So far, there are few data comparing
TEVAR with medical therapy in patients with uncomplicated Type B
AD. The Investigation of Stent Grafts in Patients with Type B AD
(INSTEAD) trial randomized a total of 140 patients with sub-acute
(.14 days) uncomplicated Type B AD.
218
Two-year follow-up
results indicated that TEVAR is effective (aortic remodelling in 91.3%
of TEVAR patients vs. 19.4% of patients receiving medical treatment;
P , 0.001); however, TEVAR showed no clinical benefit over
medical therapy (survival rates: 88.9 + 3.7% with TEVAR vs. 95.6 +
2.5% with optimal medical therapy; P ¼ 0.15). Extended follow-up of
this study (INSTEAD-XL) recently showed that aorta-related mortality
(6.9 vs. 19.3%, respectively; P ¼ 0.04) and disease progression (27.0 vs.
46.1%, respectively; P ¼ 0.04) were significantly lower after 5 years in
TEVAR patients compared with those receiving medical therapy
only.
219
No difference was found regarding total mortality. A similar
observation has recently been reported from the IRAD registry,
which, however, also included patients with complicated AD.
220
6.3.7.2.2 Complicated Type B aortic dissection: endovascular therapy.
6.3.7.2.2.1. Thoracic endovascular aortic repair
Thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR) is the treatment of
choice in complicated acute Type B AD.
11
The objectives of
TEVAR are the closure of the ‘primary’ entry tear and of perforation
sites in the descending aorta. The blood flow is redirected into the TL,
leading to improved distal perfusion by its decompression. This
mechanism may resolve malperfusion of visceral or peripheral arter-
ies. Thrombosis of the FL will also be promoted, which is the initiation
for aortic remodelling and stabilization.
The term ‘complicated’ means persistent or recurrent pain, uncon-
trolled hypertension despite full medication, early aortic expansion,
malperfusion, and signs of rupture (haemothorax, increasing periaortic
and mediastinal haematoma). Additional factors, such as the FL diam-
eter, the location of the primary entry site, and a retrograde component
of the dissection into the aortic arch, are considered to significantly in-
fluence the patient’s prognosis.
221
Future studies will have to clarify
whether these subgroups benefit from immediate TEVAR treatment.
In the absence of prospective, randomized trials, there is increasing
evidence that TEVAR shows a significant advantage over open
surgery in patients with acute complicated Type B AD. A prospective,
multicentre, European registry including 50 patients demonstrated a
30-day mortality of 8% and stroke and spinal cord ischaemia of 8%
and 2%, respectively.
222
6.3.7.2.2.2. Surgery
Lower extremities artery disease, severe tortuosity of the iliac arteries,
a sharp angulation of the aortic arch, and the absence of a proximal
landing zone for the stent graft are factors that indicate open surgery
for the treatment of acute complicated Type B AD. The aim of open
surgical repair is to replace the descending aorta with a Dacron
w
prosthesis and to direct the blood flow into the TL of the downstream
aorta by closing the FL at the distal anastomotic site, and to improve
perfusion and TL decompression, which may resolve malperfusion.
223
Owing to the fact that, in most patients, the proximal entry tear is
located near to the origin of the left subclavian artery, the operation
has to be performed in deep hypothermic circulatory arrest via a left
thoracotomy. This surgical technique offers the possibility of an
‘open’ proximal anastomosis to the non-dissected distal aortic arch. Al-
though the surgical results have improved over past decades, they
remain sub-optimal, with in-hospital mortality ranging from 25 –
50%.
224
Spinal cord ischaemia (6.8%), stroke (9%), mesenteric ischae-
mia/infarction (4.9%), and acute renal failure (19%) are complications
associated with open surgery.
225
Nowadays, surgery is rare in cases of complicated Type B AD, and
has been replaced largely by endovascular therapy. For the most part,
the aorta has to be operated in deep hypothermic circulatory arrest
via a left posterolateral thoracotomy. Cross-clamping of the aorta,
distal to the left subclavian artery, may be impractical in most cases
because of the site of the entry tear, which is predominantly
located near to the origin of the left subclavian artery. The aim of
the surgical repair implies the resection of the primary entry tear
and the replacement of the dissected descending aorta; as a conse-
quence, the blood is directed into the TL, resulting in an improved
perfusion and decompression of the TL in the thoraco-abdominal
aorta. This mechanism may resolve malperfusion of visceral arteries
and peripheral arteries. In particular clinical situations, the ‘frozen ele-
phant trunk’ technique might also be considered in the treatment of
complicated acute Type B AD without a proximal landing zone, as it
also eliminates the risk of retrograde Type A AD.
226
Recommendations for treatment of aortic dissection
Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
Ref.
c
In all patients with AD,
medical therapy including
pain relief and blood
pressure control is
recommended.
I
C
In patients with Type A AD,
urgent surgery is
recommended.
I
B
1,2
In patients with acute Type
A AD and organ
malperfusion, a hybrid
approach (i.e. ascending
aorta and/or arch
replacement associated with
any percutaneous aortic or
branch artery procedure)
should be considered.
IIa
B
2,118,
202–204,
227
In uncomplicated Type B
AD, medical therapy should
always be recommended.
I
C
In uncomplicated Type B
AD, TEVAR should be
considered.
IIa
B
218,219
In complicated Type B AD,
TEVAR is recommended.
I
C
In complicated Type B AD,
surgery may be considered.
IIb
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
AD ¼ aortic dissection; TEVAR ¼ thoracic endovascular aortic repair.
ESC Guidelines
2896
6.4 Intramural haematoma
6.4.1 Definition
Aortic IMH is an entity within the spectrum of AAS, in which a
haematoma develops in the media of the aortic wall in the
absence of an FL and intimal tear. Intramural haematoma is diag-
nosed in the presence of a circular or crescent-shaped thickening
of .5 mm of the aortic wall in the absence of detectable blood
flow. This entity may account for 10 – 25% of AAS. The involve-
ment of the ascending aorta and aortic arch (Type A) may
account for 30% and 10% of cases, respectively, whereas it
involves the descending thoracic aorta (Type B) in 60 – 70% of
cases.
228
,
229
6.4.2 Diagnosis
For the detection of an acute aortic IMH, TTE is inadequate because
of its low sensitivity. For an IMH cut-off limit of 5 mm,
230
the sensitiv-
ity of TTE for its detection is estimated to be lower than 40%. Based
on these findings, TTE cannot be used as the sole imaging technique in
patients with suspected AAS.
231
CT and MRI are the leading techniques for diagnosis and classi-
fication of intramural haematoma. When evaluating the aorta using
CT, an unenhanced acquisition is crucial for the diagnosis of IMH.
A high-attenuation crescentric thickening of the aortic, extending
in a longitudinal, non-spiral fashion, is the hallmark of this entity.
In contrast to AD, the aortic lumen is rarely compromised in
IMH, and no intimal flap or enhancement of the aortic wall is
seen after administration of contrast. Using CT, the combination
of an unenhanced acquisition followed by a contrast-enhanced ac-
quisition yields a sensitivity as high as 96% for detection of IMH.
232
Infrequently, however, the differentiation of IMH from atheroscler-
otic thickening of the aorta, thrombus, or thrombosed dissection
may be difficult using CT. In those circumstances, MRI can be
a valuable problem-solving
tool, especially when
dynamic
cine gradient-echo sequences are applied.
79
,
233
,
234
MRI may also
provide a determination of the age of a haematoma, based on
the signal characteristics of different degradation products of
haemoglobin.
88
,
187
In acute IMH Types A and B, imaging should always include a thor-
ough attempt to localize a primary (micro) entry tear, which is very
often present and therefore might lead the way to the choice of treat-
ment, especially when considering TEVAR.
6.4.3 Natural history, morphological changes,
and complications
The mortality rates of medically treated patients in European and
American series are high,
228
,
229
,
235
–
238
in contrast to Asian
series.
239
,
240
In the IRAD series, the in-hospital mortality of Type A
IMH was similar to Type A AD, and related to its proximity to the
aortic valve.
229
On the other hand, several series showed that 30 –
40% of Type A IMH evolved into AD, with the greatest risk within
the first 8 days after onset of symptoms.
236
Acute Type B IMH has
an in-hospital mortality risk of ,10%, similar to that observed with
descending Type B AD.
228
Predictors of IMH complications in the
acute phase are described in Table
8
.
Overall, the long-term prognosis of patients with IMH is more
favourable than that of patients with AD.
247
,
248
However, survival
at 5 years reported in IMH series ranged from 43 – 90%, depending
on the population characteristics.
178
,
228
,
236
Localized disruption,
called ulcer-like projection (ULP) of the aorta, may appear
within the first days or several months after the acute onset of
symptoms (Web Figure 14), and this differs from PAU, which is
related to atherosclerosis of the aortic wall.
241
,
248
Although ULP
has a poor prognosis in the ascending aorta,
248
the course is
more benign in Type B IMH.
241
,
248
It appears that the greater
the initial depth of the ULP, the greater the risk of associated com-
plications.
247
,
249
,
250
6.4.4 Indications for surgery and thoracic endovascular
aortic repair
Therapeutic management in acute IMH should be similar to that
for AD.
6.4.4.1 Type A intramural haematoma
Emergency surgery is indicated in complicated cases with pericar-
dial effusion, periaortic haematoma, or large aneurysms, and
urgent surgery (,24 hours after diagnosis) is required in most
of Type A IMHs. In elderly patients or those with significant co-
morbidities, initial medical treatment with a ‘wait-and-watch strat-
egy’ (optimal medical therapy with blood pressure and pain
control and repetitive imaging) may be a reasonable option, par-
ticularly in the absence of aortic dilation (,50 mm) and IMH
thickness ,11 mm.
239
,
240
6.4.4.2 Type B intramural haematoma
Medical treatment is the initial approach to this condition. Endovas-
cular therapy or surgery would have the same indications as for
Type B AD. The subgroup of patients with aortic dilation or ulcer-like
projection (ULP) should be followed up closely and treated more ag-
gressively if symptoms persist or reappear, or if progressive aortic
dilation is observed.
250
Indications for intervention (TEVAR rather
than surgery) in the acute phase are an expansion of the IMH
despite medical therapy, and the disruption of intimal tear on CT
with contrast enhancement.
Table 8
Predictors of intramural haematoma
complications
Persistent and recurrent pain despite aggressive medical treatment
Difficult blood pessure control
241
228
Ascending aortic involvement
228, 237, 242
Maximum aortic diameter
≥
50 mm
178, 242
Progressive maximum aortic wall thickness (>11 mm)
243
Enlarging aortic diameter
243
Recurrent pleural effusion
241
Penetrating ulcer or ulcer-like projection secondary to localized
dissections in the involved segment
241, 244-246
Detection of organ ischaemia (brain, myocardium, bowels, kidneys, etc)
ESC Guidelines
2897
Recommendations on the management of intramural
haematoma
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