Recommendations
Class
a
Level
b
Ref.
c
Cerebrospinal fluid drainage is
recommended in surgery of
the thoraco-abdominal aorta,
to reduce the risk of
paraplegia.
I
B
126–127
Aortic valve repair, using the
re-implantation technique or
remodelling with aortic
annuloplasty, is recommended
in young patients with aortic
root dilation and tricuspid
aortic valves.
I
C
For repair of acute Type A
AD, an open distal
anastomotic technique
avoiding aortic clamping
(hemiarch/complete arch) is
recommended.
I
C
In patients with connective
tissue disorders
d
requiring
aortic surgery, the
replacement of aortic sinuses
is indicated.
I
C
Selective antegrade cerebral
perfusion should be
considered in aortic arch
surgery, to reduce the risk of
stroke.
IIa
B
139,131,
134,141
The axillary artery should be
considered as first choice for
cannulation for surgery of the
aortic arch and in aortic
dissection.
IIa
C
Left heart bypass should be
considered during repair of
the descending aorta or the
thoraco-abdominal aorta, to
ensure distal organ perfusion.
IIa
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
d
Ehlers-Danlos IV -, Marfan- or Loeys-Dietz syndromes.
ESC Guidelines
2888
6. Acute thoracic aortic syndromes
6.1 Definition
Acute aortic syndromes are defined as emergency conditions
with similar clinical characteristics involving the aorta. There is
a common pathway for the various manifestations of AAS that
eventually leads to a breakdown of the intima and media. This
may result in IMH, PAU, or in separation of aortic wall layers,
leading to AD or even thoracic aortic rupture.
3
Ruptured
AAA is also part of the full picture of AAS, but it is presented
in section 7.2 because of its specific presentation and manage-
ment.
Type I
Type A
De Bakey
Stanford
Type II
Type A
Type III
Type B
Figure 4
Classification of aortic dissection localization. Schematic drawing of aortic dissection class 1, subdivided into DeBakey Types I, II, and III.
1
Also
depicted are Stanford classes A and B. Type III is differentiated in subtypes III A to III C. (sub-type depends on the thoracic or abdominal involvement
according to Reul et al.
140
)
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class 5
Figure 5
Classification of acute aortic syndrome in aortic dissection.
1
,
141
Class 1: Classic AD with true and FL with or without communication between the two lumina.
Class 2: Intramural haematoma.
Class 3: Subtle or discrete AD with bulging of the aortic wall.
Class 4: Ulceration of aortic plaque following plaque rupture.
Class 5: Iatrogenic or traumatic AD, illustrated by a catheterinduced separation of the intima.
ESC Guidelines
2889
6.2 Pathology and classification
Acute aortic syndromes occur when either a tear or an ulcer
allows blood to penetrate from the aortic lumen into the media
or when a rupture of vasa vasorum causes a bleed within the
media. The inflammatory response to blood in the media may
lead to aortic dilation and rupture. Figure
4
displays the Stanford
and the DeBakey classifications.
140
The most common features
of AAS are displayed in Figure
5
.
141
Acute AD (,14 days) is distinct
from sub-acute (15 – 90 days), and chronic aortic dissection (.90
days) (see section 12).
6.3 Acute aortic dissection
6.3.1 Definition and classification
Aortic dissection is defined as disruption of the medial layer provoked
by intramural bleeding, resulting in separation of the aortic wall layers
and subsequent formation of a TL and an FL with or without commu-
nication. In most cases, an intimal tear is the initiating condition, result-
ing in tracking of the blood in a dissection plane within the media. This
process is followed either by an aortic rupture in the case of adventi-
tial disruption or by a re-entering into the aortic lumen through a
second intimal tear. The dissection can be either antegrade or retro-
grade. The present Guidelines will apply the Stanford classification
unless stated otherwise. This classification takes into account the
extent of dissection, rather than the location of the entry tear. The
propagation can also affect side branches. Other complications
include tamponade, aortic valve regurgitation, and proximal or
distal malperfusion syndromes.
4
,
142
–
144
The inflammatory response
to thrombus in the media is likely to initiate further necrosis and apop-
tosis of smooth muscle cells and degeneration of elastic tissue, which
potentiates the risk of medial rupture.
6.3.2 Epidemiology
Up-to-date data on the epidemiology of AD are scarce. In the Oxford
Vascular study, the incidence of AD is estimated at six per hundred
thousand persons per year.
10
This incidence is higher in men than
in women and increases with age.
9
The prognosis is poorer in women,
as a result of atypical presentation and delayed diagnosis. The most
common risk factor associated with AD is hypertension, observed
in 65 – 75% of individuals, mostly poorly controlled.
4
,
142
–
145
In the
IRAD registry, the mean age was 63 years; 65% were men. Other
risk factors include pre-existing aortic diseases or aortic valve
disease, family history of aortic diseases, history of cardiac surgery,
cigarette smoking, direct blunt chest trauma and use of intravenous
drugs (e.g. cocaine and amphetamines). An autopsy study of road ac-
cident fatalities found that approximately 20% of victims had a rup-
tured aorta.
146
6.3.3 Clinical presentation and complications
6.3.3.1 Chest pain is the most frequent symptom of acute AD.
Abrupt onset of severe chest and/or back pain is the most typical
feature. The pain may be sharp, ripping, tearing, knife-like, and typ-
ically different from other causes of chest pain; the abruptness of its
onset is the most specific characteristic (Table
4
).
4
,
146
The most
common site of pain is the chest (80%), while back and abdominal
pain are experienced in 40% and 25% of patients, respectively. An-
terior chest pain is more commonly associated with Type A AD,
whereas patients with Type B dissection present more frequently
with pain in the back or abdomen.
147
,
148
The clinical presentations
of the two types of AD may frequently overlap. The pain may
migrate from its point of origin to other sites, following the dissec-
tion path as it extends through the aorta. In IRAD, migrating pain
was observed in ,15% of patients with acute Type A AD, and in
approximately 20% of those with acute Type B.
Although any pulse deficit may be as frequent as 30% in patients
with Type A AD and 15% in those with Type B, overt lower limb is-
chaemia is rare.
Multiple reports have described signs and symptoms of end-organ
dysfunction related to AD. Patients with acute Type A AD suffer
double the mortality of individuals presenting with Type B AD
(25% and 12%, respectively).
146
Cardiac complications are the
most frequent in patients with AD. Aortic regurgitation may accom-
pany 40 – 75% of cases with Type A AD.
148
–
150
After acute aortic
rupture, aortic regurgitation is the second most common cause of
death in patients with AD. Patients with acute severe aortic regurgi-
tation commonly present with heart failure and cardiogenic shock.
6.3.3.2 Aortic regurgitation in AD includes dilation of the aortic root
and annulus, tearing of the annulus or valve cusps, downward dis-
placement of one cusp below the line of the valve closure, loss of
support of the cusp, and physical interference in the closure of
the aortic valve by an intimal flap. Pericardial tamponade may be
observed in ,20% of patients with acute Type A AD. This compli-
cation is associated with a doubling of mortality.
144
,
145
6.3.3.3 Myocardial ischaemia or infarction may be present in
10 – 15% of patients with AD and may result from aortic FL expan-
sion, with subsequent compression or obliteration of coronary
ostia or the propagation of the dissection process into the coronary
tree.
151
In the presence of a complete coronary obstruction, the
ECG may show ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Also,
myocardial ischaemia may be exacerbated by acute aortic regurgi-
tation, hypertension or hypotension, and shock in patients with
or without pre-existing coronary artery disease. This may explain
the observation that approximately 10% of patients presenting
with acute Type B AD have ECG signs of myocardial ischaemia.
147
Overall, comparisons of the incidence of myocardial ischaemia and
infarction between the series and between Types A and -B aortic
dissection are challenged by the lack of a common definition. In
addition, the ECG diagnosis of non-transmural ischaemia may be
difficult in this patient population because of concomitant left ven-
tricular hypertrophy, which may be encountered in approximately
one-quarter of patients with AD. If systematically assessed, tropo-
nin elevation may be found in up to 25% of patients admitted
with Type A AD.
143
Both troponin elevation and ECG abnormal-
ities, which may fluctuate over time, may mislead the physician to
the diagnosis of acute coronary syndromes and delay proper diag-
nosis and management of acute AD.
6.3.3.4 Congestive heart failure in the setting of AD is commonly
related to aortic regurgitation. Although more common in Type
A AD, heart failure may also be encountered in patients with
Type B AD, suggesting additional aetiologies of heart failure, such
as myocardial ischaemia, pre-existing diastolic dysfunction, or un-
controlled hypertension. Registry data show that this complication
occurs in ,10% of cases of AD.
131
,
145
Notably, in the setting of AD,
patients with acute heart failure and cardiogenic shock present less
frequently with the characteristic severe and abrupt chest pain, and
this may delay diagnosis and treatment of AD. Hypotension and
shock may result from aortic rupture, acute severe aortic regurgita-
tion, extensive myocardial ischaemia, cardiac tamponade, pre-
existing left ventricular dysfunction, or major blood loss.
ESC Guidelines
2890
6.3.3.5 Large pleural effusions resulting from aortic bleeding into the
mediastinum and pleural space are rare, because these patients
usually do not survive up to arrival at hospital. Smaller pleural effu-
sions may be detected in 15 – 20% of patients with AD, with almost
equal distribution between Type A and Type B patterns, and are
believed to be mainly the result of an inflammatory process.
131
,
145
6.3.3.6 Pulmonary complications of acute AD are rare, and include
compression of the pulmonary artery and aortopulmonary fistula,
leading to dyspnoea or unilateral pulmonary oedema, and acute
aortic rupture into the lung with massive haemoptysis.
6.3.3.7 Syncope is an important initial symptom of AD, occurring in
approximately 15% of patients with Type A AD and in ,5% of
those presenting with Type B. This feature is associated with an
increased risk of in-hospital mortality because it is often related
to life-threatening complications, such as cardiac tamponade or
supra-aortic vessel dissection. In patients with suspected AD pre-
senting with syncope, clinicians must therefore actively search for
these complications.
6.3.3.8 Neurological symptoms may often be dramatic and dominate
the clinical picture, masking the underlying condition. They may result
from cerebral malperfusion, hypotension, distal thromboembolism,
or peripheral nerve compression. The frequency of neurological
symptoms in AD ranges from 15 – 40%, and in half of the cases
they may be transient. Acute paraplegia, due to spinal ischaemia
caused by occlusion of spinal arteries, is infrequently observed and
may be painless and mislead to the Leriche syndrome.
152
The most
recent IRAD report on Type A AD described an incidence of
major brain injury (i.e. coma and stroke) in ,10% and ischaemic
spinal cord damage in 1.0%.
145
Upper or lower limb ischaemic neur-
opathy, caused by a malperfusion of the subclavian or femoral terri-
tories, is observed in approximately 10% of cases. Hoarseness, due to
compression of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, is rare.
6.3.3.9 Mesenteric ischaemia occurs in ,5% of patients with Type A
AD.
145
Adjacent structures and organs may become ischaemic as
aortic branches are compromised, or may be affected by mechan-
ical compression induced by the dissected aorta or aortic bleeding,
leading to cardiac, neurological, pulmonary, visceral, and peripheral
arterial complications. End-organ ischaemia may also result from
the involvement of a major arterial orifice in the dissection
process. The perfusion disturbance can be intermittent if caused
by a dissection flap prolapse, or persistent in cases of obliteration
of the organ arterial supply by FL expansion. Clinical manifestation
is frequently insidious; the abdominal pain is often non-specific,
patients may be painless in 40% of cases; consequently, the diagno-
sis is frequently too late to save the bowel and the patient. There-
fore, it is essential to maintain a high degree of suspicion for
mesenteric ischaemia in patients with acute AD and associated ab-
dominal pain or increased lactate levels. The presence of mesenter-
ic ischaemia deeply affects the management strategy and outcomes
of patients with Type A AD; in the latest IRAD report, 50% of
patients with mesenteric malperfusion did not receive surgical
therapy, while the corresponding proportion in patients without
this complication was 12%.
145
In addition, the in-hospital mortality
rate of patients with mesenteric malperfusion is almost three times
as high as in patients without this complication (63 vs. 24%).
145
Gastro-
intestinal bleeding is a rare but potentially lethal. Bleeding may be
limited, as a result of mesenteric infarction, or massive, caused by an
aorto-oesophageal fistula or FL rupture into the small bowel.
6.3.3.10 Renal failure may be encountered at presentation or during
hospital course in up to 20% of patients with acute Type A AD and
in approximately 10% of patients with Type B AD.
145
This may be
the result of renal hypoperfusion or infarction, secondary to the in-
volvement of the renal arteries in the AD, or may be due to pro-
longed hypotension. Serial testing of creatinine and monitoring of
urine output are needed for an early detection of this condition.
6.3.4 Laboratory testing
In patients admitted to the hospital with chest pain and suspicion of
AD, the following laboratory tests, listed in Table
5
, are required
for differential diagnosis or detection of complications.
Table 4
Main clinical presentations and complications
of patients with acute aortic dissection
Type A
Type B
Chest pain
80%
70%
Back pain
40%
70%
Abrupt onset of pain
85%
85%
Migrating pain
<15%
20%
Aortic regurgitation
40–75%
N/A
Cardiac tamponade
<20%
N/A
Myocardial ischaemia or infarction
10–15%
10%
Heart failure
<10%
<5%
Pleural effusion
15%
20%
Syncope
15%
<5%
<10%
<5%
Spinal cord injury
Major neurological deficit (coma/stroke)
<1%
NR
Mesenteric ischaemia
<5%
NR
Acute renal failure
<20%
10%
Lower limb ischaemia
<10%
<10%
NR ¼ not reported; NA ¼ not applicable. Percentages are approximated.
Table 5
Laboratory tests required for patients with
acute aortic dissection
Laboratory tests
To detect signs of:
Red blood cell count
Blood loss, bleeding, anaemia
Infection, inflammation (SIRS)
Inflammatory response
White blood cell count
C-reactive protein
ProCalcitonin
Differential diagnosis between SIRS and
sepsis
Creatine kinase
Reperfusion injury, rhabdomyolysis
Troponin I or T
Myocardial ischaemia, myocardial infarction
D-dimer
Aortic dissection, pulmonary embolism,
thrombosis
Creatinine
Renal failure (existing or developing)
Aspartate transaminase/
alanine aminotransferase
Liver ischaemia, liver disease
Lactate
Bowel ischaemia, metabolic disorder
Glucose
Diabetes mellitus
Blood gases
Metabolic disorder, oxygenation
SIRS ¼ systemic inflammatory response syndrome.
ESC Guidelines
2891
If D-dimers are elevated, the suspicion of AD is increased.
153
–
159
Typically, the level of D-dimers is immediately very high, compared
with other disorders in which the D-dimer level increases gradually.
D-dimers yielded the highest diagnostic value during the first hour.
153
If the D-dimers are negative, IMH and PAU may still be present;
however, the advantage of the test is the increased alert for the differ-
ential diagnosis.
Since AD affects the medial wall of the aorta, several biomarkers
have been developed that relate to injury of the vascular endothelial
or smooth muscle cells (smooth muscle myosin), the vascular inter-
stitium (calponin, matrix metalloproteinase 8), the elastic laminae
(soluble elastin fragments) of the aorta, and signs of inflammation
(tenascin-C) or thrombosis, which are in part tested at the
moment but have not yet entered the clinical arena.
159
–
162
6.3.5 Diagnostic imaging in acute aortic dissection
The main purpose of imaging in AAD is the comprehensive assess-
ment of the entire aorta, including the aortic diameters, shape and
extent of a dissection membrane, the involvement in a dissection
process of the aortic valve, aortic branches, the relationship with
adjacent structures, and the presence of mural thrombus
(Table
6
).
153
,
163
Computed tomography, MRI, and TOE are equally reliable for con-
firming or excluding the diagnosis of AAD.
78
However, CT and MRI
have to be considered superior to TOE for the assessment of AAD
extension and branch involvement, as well as for the diagnosis of
IMH, PAU, and traumatic aortic lesions.
82
,
164
In turn, TOE using
Doppler is superior for imaging flow across tears and identifying
their locations. Transoesophageal echocardiography may be of
great interest in the very unstable patient, and can be used to
monitor changes in-theatre and in post-operative intensive care.
3
6.3.5.1 Echocardiography
The diagnosis of AD by standard transthoracic M-mode and two-
dimensional echocardiography is based on detecting intimal flaps in
the aorta. The sensitivity and specificity of TTE range from 77 –
80% and 93 – 96%, respectively, for the involvement of the ascending
aorta.
165
–
167
TTE is successful in detecting a distal dissection of the
thoracic aorta in only 70% of patients.
167
The tear is defined as a disruption of flap continuity, with fluttering of
the ruptured intimal borders.
150
,
168
Smaller intimal tears can be
detected by colour Doppler, visualizing jets across the flap,
169
which
also identifies the spiral flow pattern within the descending aorta.
Other criteria are complete obstruction of an FL, central displacement
of intimal calcification, separation of intimal layers from the thrombus,
and shearing of different wall layers during aortic pulsation.
168
TTE is restricted in patients with abnormal chest wall configur-
ation, narrow intercostal spaces, obesity, pulmonary emphysema,
and in patients on mechanical ventilation.
170
These limitations
prevent adequate decision-making but the problems have been over-
come by TOE.
168
,
158
Intimal flaps can be detected, entry and re-entry
tears localized, thrombus formation in the FL visualized and, using
colour Doppler, antegrade and retrograde flow can be imaged
while, using pulsed or continuous wave Doppler, pressure gradients
between TL and FL can be estimated.
169
Retrograde AD is identified
by lack of-, reduced-, or reversed flow in the FL. Thrombus formation
is often combined with slow flow and spontaneous contrast.
150
Wide
communications between the TL and FL result in extensive intimal
flap movements which, in extreme cases, can lead to collapse of
the TL, as a mechanism of malperfusion.
151
Localized AD of the
distal segment of the ascending aorta can be missed as it corresponds
with the ‘blind spot’ in TOE.
168
The sensitivity of TOE reaches 99%, with a specificity of 89%.
168
The positive and negative predictive values are 89% and 99%, respect-
ively, based on surgical and/or autopsy data that were independently
confirmed.
168
,
170
When the analysis was limited to patients who
underwent surgery or autopsy, the sensitivity of TOE was only 89%
and specificity 88%, with positive and negative predictive values at
97% and 93%, respectively.
168
6.3.5.2 Computed tomography
The key finding on contrast-enhanced images is the intimal flap sep-
arating two lumens. The primary role of unenhanced acquisition is to
detect medially displaced aortic calcifications or the intimal flap
itself.
171
Unenhanced images are also important for detecting IMH
(see below).
172
,
173
Diagnosis of AD can be made on transverse CT images, but multi-
planar reconstruction images play an important complementary role
in confirming the diagnosis and determining the extent of involve-
ment, especially with regard to involvement of aortic branch
vessels.
174
,
175
Table 6
Details required from imaging in acute aortic
dissection
Aortic dissection
Extent of the disease according to the aortic anatomic segmentation
Visualization of intimal flap
Identification grading, and mechanism of aortic valve regurgitation
Identification of the false and true lumens (if present)
Localization of entry and re-entry tears (if present)
Identification of antegrade and/or retrograde aortic dissection
Involvement of side branches
Detection of malperfusion (low flow or no flow)
Detection of organ ischaemia (brain, myocardium, bowels, kidneys, etc.)
Detection of pericardial effusion and its severity
Detection and extent of pleural effusion
Detection of peri-aortic bleeding
Signs of mediastinal bleeding
Intramural haematoma
Localization and extent of aortic wall thickening
Co-existence of atheromatous disease (calcium shift)
Presence of small intimal tears
Penetrating aortic ulcer
Localization of the lesion (length and depth)
Co-existence of intramural haematoma
Involvement of the peri-aortic tissue and bleeding
Thickness of the residual wall
In all cases
Co-existence of other aortic lesions: aneurysms, plaques, signs of
inflammatory disease, etc.
ESC Guidelines
2892
The major role of multidetector CT is in providing specific, precise
measurements of the extent of dissection, including length and diam-
eter of the aorta, and the TL and FL, involvement of vital vasculature,
and distance from the intimal tear to the vital vascular branches.
176
The convex face of the intimal flap is usually towards the FL that
surrounds the TL. The FL usually has slower flow and a larger diam-
eter and may contain thrombi.
176
In Type A AD, the FL is usually
located along the right anterolateral wall of the ascending aorta and
extends distally, in a spiral fashion, along the left posterolateral wall
of the descending aorta. Slender linear areas of low attenuation
may be observed in the FL, corresponding to incompletely dissected
media, known as the ‘cobweb sign’, a specific finding for identifying
the FL. In most cases, the lumen that extends more caudally is the
TL. Accurate discrimination between the FL and TL is important,
to make clear which collaterals are perfused exclusively by the FL,
as well as when endovascular therapy is considered.
176
CT is the most commonly used imaging technique for evaluation of
AAS, and for AD in particular,
177
–
180
because of its speed, wide-
spread availability, and excellent sensitivity of .95% for AD.
177
,
179
Sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing arch vessel involvement
are 93% and 98%, respectively, with an overall accuracy of 96%.
177
Diagnostic findings include active contrast extravasation or high-
attenuation haemorrhagic collections in the pleura, pericardium, or
mediastinum.
180
‘Triple-rule out’ is a relatively new term that describes an ECG-
gated 64-detector CT study to evaluate patients with acute chest
pain, in the emergency department, for three potential causes: AD,
pulmonary embolism, and coronary artery disease. The inherent ad-
vantage of CT is its rapid investigation of life-threatening sources of
acute chest pain, with a high negative predictive value.
88
,
181
However, it is important to recognize highly mobile linear intralum-
inal filling defect, which may mimic an intimal flap on CT.
182
The
so-called ‘pulsation artefact’ is the most common cause of misdiag-
nosis.
183
It is caused by pulsatile movement of the ascending aorta
during the cardiac cycle between end-diastole and end-systole. The
potential problem of pulsation artefacts can be eliminated with ECG-
gating,
77
,
183
,
184
or else by a 1808 linear interpolation reconstruction
algorithm.
185
Dense contrast enhancement in the left brachiocepha-
lic vein or superior vena cava, mediastinal clips, and indwelling cathe-
ters can all produce streak artefacts in the aorta, which may
potentially simulate dissection. This difficulty can be avoided by
careful attention to the volume and injection rate of intravenous con-
trast material administered.
88
6.3.5.3 Magnetic resonance imaging
MRI is considered the leading technique for diagnosis of AD,
with a reported sensitivity and specificity of 98%.
164
It clearly
demonstrates the extent of the disease and depicts the distal
ascending aorta and the aortic arch in more detail than is achieved
by TOE.
186
The localization of entry and re-entry is nearly as accur-
ate as with TOE and the sensitivity for both near to 90%.
186
The
identification of the intimal flap by MRI remains the key finding,
usually seen first on spin-echo black-blood sequences.
187
The TL
shows signal void, whereas the FL shows higher signal intensity in-
dicative of turbulent flow.
188
MRI is also very useful for detecting the presence of pericardial
effusion, aortic regurgitation, or carotid artery dissection.
164
,
189
The proximal coronary arteries and their involvement in the dissect-
ing process can be clearly delineated.
190
Flow in the FL and TL
can be quantified using phase contrast cine-MRI or by tagging
techniques.
191
,
192
Despite the excellent performance of this method, several meth-
odological and practical limitations preclude the use of this modality
in the majority of cases and in unstable patients.
6.3.5.4 Aortography
The angiographic diagnosis of AD is based upon ‘direct’ angio-
graphic signs, such as the visualization of the intimal flap (a negative,
frequently mobile, linear image) or the recognition of two separate
lumens; or ‘indirect’ signs including aortic lumen contour irregular-
ities, rigidity or compression, branch vessel abnormalities, thicken-
ing of the aortic walls, and aortic regurgitation.
168
This technique is
no longer used for the diagnosis of AD, except during coronary
angiography or endovascular intervention.
6.3.6 Diagnostic work-up
The diagnostic work-up to confirm or to rule out AD is highly de-
pendent on the a priori risk of this condition. The diagnostic tests
can have different outputs according to the pre-test probability.
In 2010, the ACC/American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines
proposed a risk assessment tool based on three groups of informa-
tion—predisposing conditions, pain features, and clinical examin-
ation—and proposed a scoring system that considered the
number of these groups that were involved, from 0 (none) to 3
(Table 7).
8
The IRAD reported the sensitivity of this approach,
but a validation is not yet available.
153
The presence of 0, 1, 2, or
3 groups of information is associated with increasing pre-test prob-
ability, which should be taken into account in the diagnostic ap-
proach to all AAS, as shown at the basis of the flow chart
(Figure
6
). The diagnostic flow chart combines the pre-test probabil-
ities (Table 7) according to clinical data, and the laboratory and
imaging tests, as should be done in clinical practice in emergency
or chest pain units (Figure
6
).
Table 7
Clinical data useful to assess the a priori probability of acute aortic syndrome
High-risk conditions
High-risk pain features
High-risk examination features
• Marfan syndrome
(or other connective tissue diseases)
• Family history of aortic disease
• Known aortic valve disease
• Known thoracic aortic aneurysm
• Previous aortic manipulation (including cardiac surgery)
•
Chest, back, or abdominal pain described as
any of the following:
- abrupt onset
- severe intensity
- ripping or tearing
-
-
systolic blood pressure difference
focal neurological deficit (in conjunction with pain)
•
Evidence of perfusion deficit:
pulse deficit
-
• Aortic diastolic murmur (new and with pain)
• Hypotension or shock
ESC Guidelines
2893
Recommendations on diagnostic work-up of acute aortic
syndrome
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