n
o
i
t
i
n
i
f
e
D
f
o
s
e
s
s
a
l
C
recommendations
Suggested wording to use
Class I
Evidence and/or general
agreement that a given treatment
or procedure in beneficial, useful,
effective.
Is recommended/is
indicated
Class II
divergence of opinion about the
usefulness/efficacy of the given
Conflicting evidence and/or a
treatment or procedure.
Class IIa
Weight of evidence/opinion is in
favour of usefulness/efficacy.
Should be considered
Class IIb
established by evidence/opinion.
Usefulness/efficacy is less well
May be considered
Class III
Evidence or general agreement
that the given treatment or
procedure is not useful/effective,
and in some cases may be harmful.
Is not recommended
ESC Guidelines
2877
the rules and regulations applicable to drugs and devices at the time of
prescription.
2. Introduction
In addition to coronary and peripheral artery diseases, aortic diseases
contribute to the wide spectrum of arterial diseases: aortic aneur-
ysms, acute aortic syndromes (AAS) including aortic dissection
(AD), intramural haematoma (IMH), penetrating atherosclerotic
ulcer (PAU) and traumatic aortic injury (TAI), pseudoaneurysm,
aortic rupture, atherosclerotic and inflammatory affections, as well
as genetic diseases (e.g. Marfan syndrome) and congenital abnormal-
ities including the coarctation of the aorta (CoA).
Similarly to other arterial diseases, aortic diseases may be diag-
nosed after a long period of subclinical development or they may
have an acute presentation. Acute aortic syndrome is often the
first sign of the disease, which needs rapid diagnosis and decision-
making to reduce the extremely poor prognosis.
Recently, the Global Burden Disease 2010 project demonstrated
that the overall global death rate from aortic aneurysms and
AD increased from 2.49 per 100 000 to 2.78 per 100 000
inhabitants between 1990 and 2010, with higher rates for men.
1
,
2
On the other hand the prevalence and incidence of abdominal aortic
aneurysms have declined over the last two decades. The burden
increases with age, and men are more often affected than women.
2
The ESC’s Task Force on Aortic Dissection, published in 2001, was
one of the first documents in the world relating to disease of the aorta
and was endorsed by the American College of Cardiology (ACC).
3
Since that time, the diagnostic methods for imaging the aorta have
improved significantly, particularly by the development of multi-slice
computed tomography (MSCT) and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) technologies. Data on new endovascular and surgical
approaches have increased substantially during the past 10 years.
Data from multiple registries have been published, such as the Inter-
national Registry of Aortic Dissection (IRAD)
4
and the German
Registry for Acute Aortic Dissection Type A (GERAADA),
5
consen-
sus documents,
6
,
7
(including a recent guideline for the diagnosis and
management of patients with thoracic aortic disease authored by
multiple American societies),
8
as well as nationwide and regional
population-based studies and position papers.
9
–
11
The ESC there-
fore decided to publish updated guidelines on the diagnosis and treat-
ment of aortic diseases related to the thoracic and abdominal aorta.
Emphasis is made on rapid and efficacious diagnostic strategies and
therapeutic management, including the medical, endovascular, and
surgical approaches, which are often combined. In addition, genetic
disorders, congenital abnormalities, aortic aneurysms, and AD are
discussed in more detail.
In the following section, the normal- and the ageing aorta are
described. Assessment of the aorta includes clinical examination
and laboratory testing, but is based mainly on imaging techniques
using ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), and MRI. Endovascu-
lar therapies are playing an increasingly important role in the treat-
ment of aortic diseases, while surgery remains necessary in many
situations. In addition to acute coronary syndromes, a prompt differ-
ential diagnosis between acute coronary syndrome and AAS is diffi-
cult—but very important, because treatment of these emergency
situations is very different. Thoracic- and abdominal aortic aneurysms
(TAA and AAA, respectively) are often incidental findings, but
screening programmes for AAA in primary care are progressively
being implemented in Europe. As survival rates after an acute
aortic event improve steadily, a specific section is dedicated for
chronic AD and follow-up of patients after the acute phase of AAS.
Special emphasis is put on genetic and congenital aortic diseases,
because preventive measures play an important role in avoiding sub-
sequent complications. Aortic diseases of elderly patients often
present as thromboembolic diseases or atherosclerotic stenosis.
The calcified aorta can be a major problem for surgical or interven-
tional measures. The calcified ‘coral reef’ aorta has to be considered
as an important differential diagnosis. Aortitis and aortic tumours are
also discussed.
Importantly, this document highlights the value of a holistic ap-
proach, viewing the aorta as a ‘whole organ’; indeed, in many cases
(e.g. genetic disorders) tandem lesions of the aorta may exist, as illu-
strated by the increased probability of TAA in the case of AAA,
making an arbitrary distinction between the two regions—with
TAAs managed in the past by ‘cardiovascular surgeons’ and AAAs
by ‘vascular surgeons’—although this differentiation may exist in
academic terms.
These Guidelines are the result of a close collaboration between
physicians from many different areas of expertise: cardiology, radi-
ology, cardiac and vascular surgery, and genetics. We have worked
together with the aim of providing the medical community with a
guide for rapid diagnosis and decision-making in aortic diseases. In
the future, treatment of such patients should at best be concentrated
in ‘aorta clinics’, with the involvement of a multidisciplinary team, to
ensure that optimal clinical decisions are made for each individual, es-
pecially during the chronic phases of the disease. Indeed, for most
aortic surgeries, a hospital volume – outcome relationship can be
demonstrated. Regarding the thoracic aorta, in a prospective cardio-
thoracic surgery-specific clinical database including over 13 000
patients undergoing elective aortic root and aortic valve-ascending
aortic procedures, an increasing institutional case volume was asso-
ciated with lower unadjusted and risk-adjusted mortality.
12
The op-
erative mortality was 58% less when undergoing surgery in the
highest-, rather than in the lowest-volume centre. When volume
was assessed as a continuous variable, the relationship was non-
linear, with a significant negative association between risk-adjusted
mortality and procedural volume observed in the lower volume
range (procedural volumes ,30 – 40 cases/year).
12
A hospital
volume – outcome relationship analysis for acute Type A AD repair
in the United States also showed a significant inverse correlation
between hospital procedural volume and mortality (34% in low-
volume hospitals vs. 25% in high-volume hospitals; P ¼ 0.003) for
Table 2
Levels of evidence
Level of
evidence A
Data derived from multiple randomized
clinical trials or meta-analyses.
Level of
evidence B
Data derived from a single randomized
clinical trial or large non-randomized
studies.
Level of
evidence C
Consensus of opinion of the experts and/
or small studies, retrospective studies,
registries.
ESC Guidelines
2878
patients undergoing urgent or emergent repair of acute Type A
AD.
13
A similar relationship has been reported for the
thoraco-abdominal aortic aneurysm repair, demonstrating a near
doubling of in-hospital mortality at low- (median volume 1 proced-
ure/year) in comparison with high-volume hospitals (median
volume 12 procedures/year; 27 vs. 15% mortality; P , 0.001)
14
and intact and ruptured open descending thoracic aneurysm
repair.
15
Likewise, several reports have demonstrated the
volume – outcome relationship for AAA interventions. In an analysis
of the outcomes after AAA open repair in 131 German hospitals,
16
an independent relationship between annual volume and mortality
has been reported. In a nationwide analysis of outcomes in UK hos-
pitals, elective AAA surgical repair performed in high-volume
centres was significantly associated with volume-related improve-
ments in mortality and hospital stay, while no relationship
between volume and outcome was reported for ruptured AAA
repairs.
17
The results for endovascular therapy are more contradic-
tory. While no volume – outcome relationship has been found for
thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR),
18
one report from
the UK suggests such a relationship for endovascular aortic repair
(EVAR).
19
Overall, these data support the need to establish
centres of excellence, so-called ‘aortic teams’, throughout
Europe; however, in emergency cases (e.g. Type A AD or ruptured
AAA) the transfer of a patient should be avoided, if sufficient
medical and surgical facilities and expertise are available locally.
Finally, this document lists major gaps of evidence in many situa-
tions in order to delineate key directions for further research.
3. The normal and the ageing aorta
The aorta is the ultimate conduit, carrying, in an average lifetime,
almost 200 million litres of blood to the body. It is divided by the dia-
phragm into the thoracic and abdominal aorta (Figure
1
). The aortic
wall is composed histologically of three layers: a thin inner tunica
intima lined by the endothelium; a thick tunica media characterized
by concentric sheets of elastic and collagen fibres with the border
zone of the lamina elastica interna and -externa, as well as smooth
muscle cells; and the outer tunica adventitia containing mainly colla-
gen, vasa vasorum, and lymphatics.
20
,
21
In addition to the conduit function, the aorta plays an important
role in the control of systemic vascular resistance and heart rate,
via pressure-responsive receptors located in the ascending aorta
and aortic arch. An increase in aortic pressure results in a decrease
in heart rate and systemic vascular resistance, whereas a decrease
in aortic pressure results in an increase in heart rate and systemic vas-
cular resistance.
20
Through its elasticity, the aorta has the role of a ‘second pump’
(Windkessel function) during diastole, which is of the utmost import-
ance—not only for coronary perfusion.
In healthy adults, aortic diameters do not usually exceed 40 mm
and taper gradually downstream. They are variably influenced by
several factors including age, gender, body size [height, weight,
body surface area (BSA)] and blood pressure.
21
–
26
In this regard,
the rate of aortic expansion is about 0.9 mm in men and 0.7 mm in
women for each decade of life.
26
This slow but progressive aortic
A
o
r t
i c a r
c
h
Ascending
aorta
Descending
aorta
Thoracic
aorta
Abdominal
aorta
Infrarenal
Diaphragm
Aortic annulus
Sinuses of valsalva
Sinotubular junction
Suprarenal
Aortic
root
rPA
Figure 1
Segments of the ascending and descending aorta. rPA = right pulmonary artery.
ESC Guidelines
2879
dilation over mid-to-late adulthood is thought to be a consequence
of ageing, related to a higher collagen-to-elastin ratio, along with
increased stiffness and pulse pressure.
20
,
23
Current data from athletes suggest that exercise training per se has
only a limited impact on physiological aortic root remodelling, as the
upper limit (99th percentile) values are 40 mm in men and 34 mm in
women.
27
4. Assessment of the aorta
4.1 Clinical examination
While aortic diseases may be clinically silent in many cases, a broad
range of symptoms may be related to different aortic diseases:
† Acute deep, aching or throbbing chest or abdominal pain that can
spread to the back, buttocks, groin or legs, suggestive of AD or
other AAS, and best described as ‘feeling of rupture’.
† Cough, shortness of breath, or difficult or painful swallowing in
large TAAs.
† Constant or intermittent abdominal pain or discomfort, a pulsat-
ing feeling in the abdomen, or feeling of fullness after minimal
food intake in large AAAs.
† Stroke, transient ischaemic attack, or claudication secondary to
aortic atherosclerosis.
† Hoarseness due to left laryngeal nerve palsy in rapidly progressing
lesions.
The assessment of medical history should focus on an optimal under-
standing of the patient’s complaints, personal cardiovascular risk
factors, and family history of arterial diseases, especially the presence
of aneurysms and any history of AD or sudden death.
In some situations, physical examination can be directed by the
symptoms and includes palpation and auscultation of the abdomen
and flank in the search for prominent arterial pulsations or turbulent
blood flow causing murmurs, although the latter is very infrequent.
Blood pressure should be compared between arms, and pulses
should be looked for. The symptoms and clinical examination of
patients with AD will be addressed in section 6.
4.2 Laboratory testing
Baseline laboratory assessment includes cardiovascular risk factors.
28
Laboratory testing plays a minor role in the diagnosis of acute aortic
diseases but is useful for differential diagnoses. Measuring biomarkers
early after onset of symptoms may result in earlier confirmation of
the correct diagnosis by imaging techniques, leading to earlier institu-
tion of potentially life-saving management.
4.3 Imaging
The aorta is a complex geometric structure and several measure-
ments are useful to characterize its shape and size (Web Table
1
). If
feasible, diameter measurements should be made perpendicular to
the axis of flow of the aorta (see Figure
2
and Web Figures
1
–
4
).
Standardized measurements will help to better assess changes in
aortic size over time and avoid erroneous findings of arterial
growth. Meticulous side-by-side comparisons and measurements
of serial examinations (preferably using the same imaging technique
and method) are crucial, to exclude random error.
Measurements of aortic diameters are not always straightforward
and some limitations inherent to all imaging techniques need to be
acknowledged. First, no imaging modality has perfect resolution
and the precise depiction of the aortic walls depends on whether ap-
propriate electrocardiogram (ECG) gating is employed. Also, reliable
detection of aortic diameter at the same aortic segment over time
requires standardized measurement; this includes similar determin-
ation of edges (inner-to-inner, or leading edge-to-leading edge, or
outer-to-outer diameter measurement, according to the imaging
modality).
41
,
43
,
57
,
58
Whether the measurement should be done
during systole or diastole has not yet been accurately assessed, but
diastolic images give the best reproducibility.
It is recommended that maximum aneurysm diameter be mea-
sured perpendicular to the centreline of the vessel with three-
dimensional (3D) reconstructed CT scan images whenever possible
(Figure
2
).
59
This approach offers more accurate and reproducible
measurements of true aortic dimensions, compared with axial cross-
section diameters, particularly in tortuous or kinked vessels where
the vessel axis and the patient’s cranio-caudal axis are not parallel.
60
If 3D and multi-planar reconstructions are not available, the minor
axis of the ellipse (smaller diameter) is generally a closer approxima-
tion of the true maximum aneurysm diameter than the major axis
diameter, particularly in tortuous aneurysms.
58
However, the dis-
eased aorta is no longer necessarily a round structure, and, particu-
larly in tortuous aneurysms, eccentricity of measurements can be
caused by an oblique off-axis cut through the aorta. The minor axis
measurements may underestimate the true aneurysm dimensions
(Web Figures
1
–
4
). Among patients with a minor axis of ,50 mm,
7% have an aneurysmal diameter .55 mm as measured by major
axis on curved multi-planar reformations.
61
Compared with axial
short-axis or minor-axis diameter measurements, maximum diam-
eter measurements perpendicular to the vessel centreline have
higher reproducibility.
60
Inter- and intra-observer variability of CT
for AAA—defined as Bland-Altman limits of agreement—are ap-
proximately 5 mm and 3 mm, respectively.
43
,
61
–
63
Thus, any
change of .5 mm on serial CT can be considered a significant
change, but smaller changes are difficult to interpret. Compared
with CT, ultrasound systematically underestimates AAA dimensions
by an average of 1 – 3 mm.
61
,
62
,
63
,
64
,
65
It is recommended that the
identical imaging technique be used for serial measurements and
that all serial scans be reviewed before making therapeutic decisions.
There is no consensus, for any technique, on whether the aortic
wall should be included or excluded in the aortic diameter measure-
ments, although the difference may be large, depending, for instance,
on the amount of thrombotic lining of the arterial wall.
65
However,
recent prognostic data (especially for AAAs) are derived from mea-
surements that include the wall.
66
4.3.1 Chest X-ray
Chest X-ray obtained for other indications may detect abnormal-
ities of aortic contour or size as an incidental finding, prompting
further imaging. In patients with suspected AAS, chest X-ray may
occasionally identify other causes of symptoms. Chest X-ray is,
however, only of limited value for diagnosing an AAS, particularly
if confined to the ascending aorta.
67
In particular, a normal aortic sil-
houette is not sufficient to rule out the presence of an aneurysm of
the ascending aorta.
ESC Guidelines
2880
4.3.2 Ultrasound
4.3.2.1 Transthoracic echocardiography
Echocardiographic evaluation of the aorta is a routine part of the
standard echocardiographic examination.
68
Although transthoracic
echocardiography (TTE) is not the technique of choice for full assess-
ment of the aorta, it is useful for the diagnosis and follow-up of some
aortic segments. Transthoracic echocardiography is the most fre-
quently used technique for measuring proximal aortic segments
in clinical practice. The aortic root is visualized in the parasternal
long-axis and modified apical five-chamber views; however, in
these views the aortic walls are seen with suboptimal lateral
resolution (Web Figure
1
).
Modified subcostal artery may be helpful. Transthoracic echocar-
diography also permits assessment of the aortic valve, which is often
involved in diseases of the ascending aorta. Of paramount import-
ance for evaluation of the thoracic aorta is the suprasternal view:
the aortic arch analysis should be included in all transthoracic echo-
cardiography exams. This view primarily depicts the aortic arch and
the three major supra-aortic vessels with variable lengths of the
ascending and descending aorta; however, it is not possible to see
the entire thoracic aorta by TTE. A short-axis view of the descending
aorta can be imaged posteriorly to the left atrium in the parasternal
long-axis view and in the four-chamber view. By 908 rotation of the
transducer, a long-axis view is obtained and a median part of the des-
cending thoracic aorta may be visualized. In contrast, the abdominal
descending aorta is relatively easily visualized to the left of the inferior
vena cava in sagittal (superior-inferior) subcostal views.
Transthoracic echocardiography is an excellent imaging modality
for serial measurement of maximal aortic root diameters,
57
for evalu-
ation of aortic regurgitation, and timing for elective surgery in cases of
TAA. Since the predominant area of dilation is in the proximal aorta,
TTE often suffices for screening.
57
Via the suprasternal view, aortic
arch aneurysm, plaque calcification, thrombus, or a dissection mem-
brane may be detectable if image quality is adequate. From this
window, aortic coarctation can be suspected by continuous-wave
Doppler; a patent ductus arteriosus may also be identifiable by
colour Doppler. Using appropriate views (see above) aneurysmal
dilation, external compression, intra-aortic thrombi, and dissection
flaps can be imaged and flow patterns in the abdominal aorta
assessed. The lower abdominal aorta, below the renal arteries, can
be visualized to rule out AAA.
4.3.2.2 Transoesophageal echocardiography
The relative proximity of the oesophagus and the thoracic aorta
permits high-resolution images with higher-frequency transoesopha-
geal echocardiography (TOE) (Web Figure
2
).
68
Also, multi-plane
imaging permits improved assessment of the aorta from its root to
the descending aorta.
68
Transoesophageal echocardiography is semi-
invasive and requires sedation and strict blood pressure control, as
well as exclusion of oesophageal diseases. The most important
TOE views of the ascending aorta, aortic root, and aortic valve are
the high TOE long-axis (at 120 – 1508) and short-axis (at 30 –
608).
68
Owing to interposition of the right bronchus and trachea, a
short segment of the distal ascending aorta, just before the innomin-
ate artery, remains invisible (a ‘blind spot’). Images of the ascending
aorta often contain artefacts due to reverberations from the poster-
ior wall of the ascending aorta or the posterior wall of the right
pulmonary artery, and present as aortic intraluminal horizontal
lines moving in parallel with the reverberating structures, as can be
ascertained by M-mode tracings.
69
,
70
The descending aorta is easily
visualized in short-axis (08) and long-axis (908) views from the
coeliac trunk to the left subclavian artery. Further withdrawal of
the probe shows the aortic arch.
Real-time 3D TOE appears to offer some advantages over
two-dimensional TOE, but its clinical incremental value is not yet
well-assessed.
71
4.3.2.3 Abdominal ultrasound
Abdominal ultrasound (Web Figure
3
) remains the mainstay imaging
modality for abdominal aortic diseases because of its ability to accur-
ately measure the aortic size, to detect wall lesions such as mural
thrombus or plaques, and because of its wide availability, painless-
ness, and low cost. Duplex ultrasound provides additional informa-
tion on aortic flow.
Colour Doppler is of great interest in the case of abdominal aorta
dissection, to detect perfusion of both false and true lumen and po-
tential re-entry sites or obstruction of tributaries (e.g. the iliac arter-
ies).
72
Nowadays Doppler tissue imaging enables the assessment of
aortic compliance, and 3D ultrasound imaging may add important
insights regarding its geometry, especially in the case of aneurysm.
Contrast-enhanced ultrasound is useful in detecting, localizing, and
quantifying endoleaks when this technique is used to follow patients
after EVAR.
73
For optimized imaging, abdominal aorta echography is
performed after 8 – 12 hours of fasting that reduces intestinal gas.
Usually 2.5 – 5 MHz curvilinear array transducers provide optimal
visualization of the aorta, but the phased-array probes used for echo-
cardiography may give sufficient image quality in many patients.
74
Ultrasound evaluation of the abdominal aorta is usually performed
with the patient in the supine position, but lateral decubitus positions
may also be useful. Scanning the abdominal aorta usually consists of
longitudinal and transverse images, from the diaphragm to the bifur-
cation of the aorta. Before diameter measurement, an image of the
aorta should be obtained, as circular as possible, to ensure that the
image chosen is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. In this case,
the anterior-posterior diameter is measured from the outer edge
to the outer edge and this is considered to represent the aortic diam-
eter. Transverse diameter measurement is less accurate. In ambigu-
ous cases, especially if the aorta is tortuous, the anterior-posterior
diameter can be measured in the longitudinal view, with the diameter
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aorta. In a review of the
reproducibility of aorta diameter measurement,
75
the inter-observer
reproducibility was evaluated by the limits of agreement and ranged
from +1.9 mm to +10.5 mm for the anterior-posterior diameter,
while a variation of +5 mm is usually considered ‘acceptable’. This
should be put into perspective with data obtained during follow-up
of patients, so that trivial progressions, below these limits, are clinic-
ally difficult to ascertain.
4.3.3 Computed tomography
Computed tomography plays a central role in the diagnosis, risk
stratification, and management of aortic diseases. Its advantages
over other imaging modalities include the short time required for
image acquisition and processing, the ability to obtain a complete
ESC Guidelines
2881
3D dataset of the entire aorta, and its widespread availability
(Figure
2
).
Electrocardiogram (ECG)-gated acquisition protocols are crucial
in reducing motion artefacts of the aortic root and thoracic
aorta.
76
,
77
High-end MSCT scanners (16 detectors or higher) are
preferred for their higher spatial and temporal resolution compared
with lower-end devices.
8
,
76
–
79
Non-enhanced CT, followed by CT
contrast-enhanced angiography, is the recommended protocol, par-
ticularly when IMH or AD are suspected. Delayed images are recom-
mended after stent-graft repair of aortic aneurysms, to detect
endoleaks. In suitable candidates scanned on 64-detector systems
or higher-end devices, simultaneous CT coronary angiography may
allow confirmation or exclusion of the presence of significant coron-
ary artery disease before transcatheter or surgical repair. Computed
tomography allows detection of the location of the diseased segment,
the maximal diameter of dilation, the presence of atheroma,
thrombus, IMH, penetrating ulcers, calcifications and, in selected
cases, the extension of the disease to the aortic branches. In AD,
CT can delineate the presence and extent of the dissection flap,
detect areas of compromised perfusion, and contrast extravasation,
indicating rupture; it can provide accurate measurements of the
sinuses of Valsalva, the sinotubular junction, and the aortic valve
morphology. Additionally, extending the scan field-of-view to the
upper thoracic branches and the iliac and femoral arteries may
assist in planning surgical or endovascular repair procedures.
In most patients with suspected AD, CT is the preferred initial
imaging modality.
4
In several reports, the diagnostic accuracy of CT
for the detection of AD or IMH involving the thoracic aorta has
been reported as excellent (pooled sensitivity 100%; pooled specifi-
city 98%).
76
Similar diagnostic accuracy has been reported for detect-
ing traumatic aortic injury.
80
,
81
Other features of AAS, such as
penetrating ulcers, thrombus, pseudo-aneurysm, and rupture are
A
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Figure 2
Thoracic and abdominal aorta in a three-dimensional reconstruction (left lateral image), parasagitale multiplanar reconstruction (MPR)
along the centreline (left middle part), straightened-MPR along the centreline with given landmarks (A – I) (right side), orthogonal to the centreline
orientated cross-sections at the landmarks (A – J). Landmarks A – J should be used to report aortic diameters: (A) sinuses of Valsalva; (B) sinotubular
junction; (C) mid ascending aorta (as indicated); (D) proximal aortic arch (aorta at the origin of the brachiocephalic trunk); (E) mid aortic arch
(between left common carotid and subclavian arteries); (F) proximal descending thoracic aorta (approximately 2 cm distal to left subclavian
artery); (G) mid descending aorta (level of the pulmonary arteries as easily identifiable landmarks, as indicated); (H) at diaphragm; (I) at the celiac
axis origin; (J) right before aortic bifurcation. (Provided by F Nensa, Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Essen.)
ESC Guidelines
2882
readily depicted by CT, but data on accuracy are scarce and published
reports limited.
82
The drawbacks of CT angiography consist of ad-
ministration of iodinated contrast agent, which may cause allergic
reactions or renal failure. Also the use of ionizing radiation may
limit its use in young people, especially in women, and limits its use
for serial follow-up. Indeed, the average effective radiation dose
during aortic computed tomography angiography (CT) is estimated
to be within the 10 – 15 mSv range. The risk of cancer related to
this radiation is substantially higher in women than in men. The risk
is reduced (plateauing) beyond the age of 50 years.
83
4.3.4 Positron emission tomography/computed
tomography
Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging is based on the distribu-
tion of the glucose analogue
18
F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), which is
taken up with high affinity by hypermetabolic cells (e.g. inflammatory
cells), and can be used to detect vascular inflammation in large
vessels. The advantages of PET may be combined with CT imaging
with good resolution. Several publications suggest that FDG PET
may be used to assess aortic involvement with inflammatory vascular
disease (e.g. Takayasu arteritis, GCA), to detect endovascular graft in-
fection, and to track inflammatory activity over a given period of
treatment.
84
–
86
PET may also be used as a surrogate for the activity
of a lesion and as a surrogate for disease progression; however, the
published literature is limited to small case series or anecdotal
reports.
86
The value of detection of aortic graft infection is under
investigation.
87
4.3.5 Magnetic resonance imaging
With its ability to delineate the intrinsic contrast between blood flow
and vessel wall, MRI is well suited for diagnosing aortic diseases (Web
Figure
4
). The salient features necessary for clinical decision-making,
such as maximal aortic diameter, shape and extent of the aorta,
involvement of aortic branches in aneurysmal dilation or dissection,
relationship to adjacent structures, and presence of mural thrombus,
are reliably depicted by MRI.
In the acute setting, MRI is limited because it is less accessible, it is
more difficult to monitor unstable patients during imaging, and it has
longer acquisition times than CT.
79
,
88
Magnetic resonance imaging
does not require ionizing radiation or iodinated contrast and is
therefore highly suitable for serial follow-up studies in (younger)
patients with known aortic disease.
Magnetic resonance imaging of the aorta usually begins with
spin-echo black blood sequences to outline its shape and diameter,
and depicting an intimal flap in the presence of AD.
89
Gradient-echo
sequences follow in stable patients, demonstrating changes in aortic
diameters during the cardiac cycle and blood flow turbulences—for
instance, at entry/re-entry sites in AD, distal to bicuspid valves, or in
aortic regurgitation. Contrast-enhanced MRI with intravenous gado-
linium can be performed rapidly, depicting the aorta and the arch
vessels as a 3D angiogram, without the need for ECG-gating.
Gadolinium-enhanced sequences can be performed to differentiate
slow flow from thrombus in the false lumen (FL). Importantly, the
evaluation of both source and maximal intensity projection images
is crucial for diagnosis because these images can occasionally fail to
show the intimal flap. Evaluation of both source and maximal intensity
projection images is necessary because these images may sometimes
miss the dissecting membrane and the delineation of the aortic wall.
Time-resolved 3D flow-sensitive MRI, with full coverage of the thor-
acic aorta, provides the unique opportunity to visualize and measure
blood flow patterns. Quantitative parameters, such as pulse wave vel-
ocities and estimates of wall shear stress can be determined.
90
The
disadvantage of MRI is the difficulty of evaluating aortic valve calcifi-
cation of the anchoring zones, which is important for sealing of
stent grafts. The potential of gadolinium nephrotoxicity seems to
be lower than for CT contrast agents, but it has to be taken into
account, related to renal function.
4.3.6 Aortography
Catheter-based invasive aortography visualizes the aortic lumen, side
branches, and collaterals. As a luminography technique, angiography
provides exact information about the shape and size of the aorta, as
well as any anomalies (Web Figures
5
and
6
), although diseases of the
aortic wall itself are missed, as well as thrombus-filled discrete aortic
aneurysms. Additionally, angiographic techniques permit assessment
and, if necessary, treatment of coronary artery and aortic branch
disease. Finally, it is possible to evaluate the condition of the aortic
valve and left ventricular function.
On the other hand, angiography is an invasive procedure requiring
the use of contrast media. It only shows the lumen of the aorta and,
Table 3
Comparison of methods for imaging the aorta
Advantages/disadvantages
TTE
TOE
CT
MRI
Aortography
Ease of use
+++
++
+++
++
+
Diagnostic reliability
+
+++
+++
+++
++
Bedside/interventional use
a
++
++
–
–
++
Serial examinations
++
+
++(+)
b
+++
–
Aortic wall visualization
c
+
+++
+++
+++
–
Cost
–
–
– –
– – –
– – –
Radiation
0
0
– – –
–
– –
Nephrotoxicity
0
0
– – –
– –
– – –
+ means a positive remark and—means a negative remark. The number of signs indicates the estimated potential value
a
IVUS can be used to guide interventions (see web addenda)
b
+++ only for follow-up after aortic stenting (metallic struts), otherwise limit radiation
c
PET can be used to visualize suspected aortic inflammatory disease
CT ¼ computed tomography; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging; TOE ¼ transoesophageal echocardiography; TTE ¼ transthoracic echocardiography.
ESC Guidelines
2883
hence, can miss discrete aortic aneurysms. In addition, the technique
is less commonly available than TTE or CT. For this reason the non-
invasive imaging modalities have largely replaced aortography in first-
line diagnostic testing, both in patients with suspected AAS and with
suspected or known chronic AD. However, aortography may be
useful if findings by non-invasive techniques are ambiguous or incom-
plete. A comparison of the major imaging tools used for making the
diagnosis of aortic diseases can be found in Table
3
.
4.3.7 Intravascular ultrasound
To optimize visualization of the aortic wall, intravascular ultrasound
(IVUS) can be used, particularly during endovascular treatment (Web
Figure 7). The technique of intracardiac echocardiography is even
more sophisticated (Web Figure 8).
Recommendations on imaging of the aorta
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