Figure 21. Rotor and stator 3D diagram
Each accelerator has two 70 MVA inverters, one to accelerate the outgoing
capsule, and one to capture the energy from the incoming capsule. Inverters in
the 10+ MVA power range are not unusual in mining, drives for large cargo
ships, and railway traction. Moreover, 100+ MVA drives are commercially
available. Relatively inexpensive semiconductor switches allow the central
inverters to energize only the section of track occupied by a capsule, improving
the power factor seen by the inverters.
The inverters are physically located at the highest speed end of the track to
minimize conductor cost.
Rotor (mounted to capsule)
Stator (mounted to tube)
Page 36
Linear motors for
departure track
Linear motors for
arrival track
High speed (760mph) end
Traction power = 50MW
Energy storage
E = 38 MWhr
P
RMS
= 37MW
P
PEAK
= 56MW
Solar system
Distributed along length, 285MW peak power total
HVDC bus
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
Low speed (300mph) end
Traction power = 20MW
Traction inverters
70MVA each
Solid-state switches
6MW grid
connection and grid
tie inverter
Figure 22. Linear accelerator concept for capsule acceleration and deceleration between 300
and 760 mph (480 and 1,220 kph).
4.3.1. Capsule Components (Rotor)
The rotor of the linear accelerators is very simple – an aluminum blade 49 ft
(15 m) long, 1.5 ft (0.45 m) tall, and 2 in. (50 mm) thick. Current flows mainly
in the outer 0.4 in. (10 mm) of this blade, allowing it to be hollow to decrease
weight and cost.
The gap between the rotor and the stator is 0.8 in. (20 mm) on each side. A
combination of the capsule control system and electromagnetic centering
forces allows the capsule to safely enter, stay within, and exit such a precise
gap.
Page 37
Figure 23. Magnetic field strength inside linear induction motor
4.3.2. Tube Components (Stator)
The stator is mounted to the bottom of the tube over the entire 2.5 miles (4.0
km) it takes to accelerate and decelerate between 300 and 760 mph (480 and
1,220 km). It is approximately 1.6 ft (0.5 m) wide (including the air gap) and
4.0 in. (10 cm) tall, and weighs 530 lb/ft (800 kg/m).
Laid out symmetrically on each side of the rotor, its electrical configuration is
3-phase, 1 slot per pole per phase, with a variable linear pitch (1.3 ft or 0.4 m
maximum). The number of turns per slot also varies along the length of the
stator, allowing the inverter to operate at nearly constant phase voltage, which
simplifies the power electronics design. The two halves of the stator require
bracing to resist the magnetic forces of 20 lb
f
/ft (300N/m) that try to bring
them together.
Rotor aluminum (mounted to capsule)
Stator iron (mounted to tube)
Copper coils
Air gap
Page 38
Figure 24. Cross section of rotor inside stator
4.3.3. Energy Storage Components
Energy storage allows this linear accelerator to only draw its average power of
8,000 hp (6 MW) (rather than the peak power of 74,000 hp or 55 MW) from its
solar array.
Building the energy storage element out of the same lithium ion cells available
in the Tesla Model S is economical. A battery array with enough power
capability to provide the worst-case smoothing power has a lot of energy –
launching 1 capsule only uses 0.5% of the total energy – so degradation due to
cycling is not an issue. With proper construction and controls, the battery could
be directly connected to the HVDC bus, eliminating the need for an additional
DC/DC converter to connect it to the propulsion system.
4.3.4. Cost
As described above, the propulsion elements on the capsule are limited to the
rotor and not expected to cost any more than $3 million USD for the overall
system. The bulk of the propulsion cost is for the stator elements connected to
the track and for the inverters to drive the stator. All tube-side propulsion
costs together for all linear accelerators add up to $140 million USD.
This cost is roughly divided as followed:
-
Stator and structure materials = 54%
Stator iron
Stator windings
Rotor
Page 39
-
Power electronics (traction inverters, grid tie inverters) = 33%
-
Energy storage = 13%
The solar array and associated electronics provide the required average power
of 28,000 hp (21 MW) and are expected to cost approximately $210 million
USD.
4.3.5. Propulsion for Passenger Plus Vehicle System
Compared to the passenger-only capsule, the passenger plus vehicle capsule
weighs more, requires a more powerful compressor, and has 50% higher total
drag. This increases both the peak and continuous power requirements on the
propulsion system, so that the Hyperloop now consumes an average of 66,000
hp (49 MW). However, there is still more than enough solar power available on
the wider tubes (122,000 hp or 91 MW, on average) to provide this.
The expected total cost for this larger propulsion system is $691 million USD,
divided as follows:
-
66,000 hp (49 MW) (yearly average requirement) solar array: $490 million
USD
-
Propulsion system total: $200 million USD
o
Stator and structure materials = 47%
o
Power electronics = 37%
o
Energy storage = 16%
4.4. Route
The Hyperloop will be capable of traveling between Los Angeles and San
Francisco in approximately 35 minutes. This requirement tends to size other
portions of the system. Given the performance specification of the Hyperloop,
a route has been devised to satisfy this design requirement. The Hyperloop
route should be based on several considerations, including:
1.
Maintaining the tube as closely as possible to existing rights of way (e.g.,
following the I-5).
2.
Limiting the maximum capsule speed to 760 mph (1,220 kph) for
aerodynamic considerations.
3.
Limiting accelerations on the passengers to 0.5g.
4.
Optimizing locations of the linear motor tube sections driving the
capsules.
5.
Local geographical constraints, including location of urban areas,
mountain ranges, reservoirs, national parks, roads, railroads, airports,
etc. The route must respect existing structures.
Page 40
For aerodynamic efficiency, the speed of a capsule in the Hyperloop is
typically:
300 mph (480 kph) where local geography necessitates a tube bend radii
< 1.0 mile (1.6 km)
760 mph (1,220 kph) where local geography allows a tube bend > 3.0
miles (4.8 km) or where local geography permits a straight tube.
These bend radii have been calculated so that the passenger does not
experience inertial accelerations that exceed 0.5g. This is deemed the
maximum inertial acceleration that can be comfortably sustained by humans
for short periods. To further reduce the inertial acceleration experienced by
passengers, the capsule and/or tube will incorporate a mechanism that will
allow a degree of ‘banking’.
The Hyperloop route was created by the authors using Google Earth.
Page 41
Figure 25. Overview of Hyperloop route from Los Angeles to San Francisco.
4.4.1. Route Optimization
In order to avoid bend radii that would lead to uncomfortable passenger
inertial accelerations and hence limit speed, it is necessary to optimize the
route. This can be achieved by deviating from the current highway system,
earth removal, constructing pylons to achieve elevation change or tunneling.
The proposed route considers a combination of 20, 50, and 100 ft (6, 15, and 30
m, respectively) pylon heights to raise and lower the Hyperloop tube over
geographical obstacles. A total tunnel length of 15.2 miles (24.5 km) has been
Page 42
included in this optimization where extreme local gradients (>6%) would
preclude the use of pylons. Tunneling cost estimations are estimated at $50
million per mile ($31 million per km). The small diameter of the Hyperloop
tube should keep tunneling costs to a far more reasonable level than traditional
automotive and rail tunnels.
The route has been divided into the following sections:
Los Angeles/Grapevine – South and North
I-5
I-580/San Francisco Bay
Summary
•
300 mph (480 kph) for the Los Angeles Grapevine South section at 0.5g.
Total time of 167 seconds
•
555 mph (890 kph) for the Los Angeles Grapevine North section at 0.5g.
Total travel time of 435 seconds
•
760 mph (1,220 kph ) along I-5 at 0.5g.
Total travel time of 1,518 seconds
•
555 mph (890 kph) along I-580 slowing to 300 mph (480 kph) into San
Francisco.
Total travel time of 2,134 seconds (35 minutes)
The speed (Figure 26) along the Hyperloop and distance (Figure 27) as a
function of time summarize the route.
Page 43
Figure 26. Speed of capsule as a function of time from Los Angeles departure.
Figure 27. Distance of capsule as a function of time from Los Angeles departure.
Page 44
4.4.1.1. Los Angeles/Grapevine - South
Visualization -
The preliminary route is shown in yellow. Bend radii are
shown in red. The green dashed line delineates the
north/south Grapevine definition in this document.
Route -
Follows I-5 through Santa Clarita and Castaic.
Figure 28. Los Angeles/Grapevine South Section of proposed Hyperloop route.
Page 45
Table 3. Los Angeles/Grapevine South data at 300 mph (480 kph).
Criteria
0.5g
Acceleration
Min. bend radius at
300 mph (483 kph)
2.28 miles
(3.67 km)
Section Distance
13.4 miles
(21.6 km)
Journey time
167.6 seconds
Tunnel distance
1.0 miles
(1.61 km)
No. of 20 ft (6 m)
pylons
563
No. of 50 ft (15 m)
pylons
80
No. of 100 ft (30 m)
Pylons
12
Additional length
Required
1.20 miles
(1.93 km)
4.4.1.2. Los Angeles/Grapevine – North
Visualization -
The preliminary route is shown in yellow. Bend radii are
shown in red. The green dashed line delineates the
north/south Grapevine definition in this document.
Route -
Significant deviation from I-5 in order to increase bend
radius and develop straight sections.
Page 46
Figure 29. Los Angeles/Grapevine North Section of proposed Hyperloop route.
Page 47
Table 4. Los Angeles/Grapevine North data at 555 mph (890 kph).
Criteria
0.5g
Acceleration
Min. bend radius at
555 mph (890 kph)
7.80 miles
(12.6 km)
Distance
40.0 miles
(64.4 km)
Journey time
267.4 seconds
Tunnel distance
10.7 miles
(17.2 km)
No. of 20 ft (6 m)
Pylons
492
No. of 50 ft (15 m)
Pylons
260
No. of 100 ft (30 m)
Pylons
795
Additional length
required
24 miles
(38.6 km)
4.4.1.2. Center Section of I-5
Visualization -
The preliminary route is shown in yellow. Bend radii are
shown in red.
Route -
Follows I-5 to minimize land/right of way purchase costs.
Page 48
Figure 30. I-5 Section of proposed Hyperloop route.
Page 49
Table 5. I-5 Section data at 760 mph (1,120 kph).
Criteria
0.5g
Acceleration
Min. bend radius at 760
mph (1,220 kph)
14.6 miles
(23.5 km)
Distance
227 miles
(365 km)
Journey time
1,173.0 seconds
Tunnel distance
0 miles
(0 km)
No. of 20 ft (6 m)
pylons
10,930
No. of 50 ft (15 m)
pylons
1,056
No. of 100 ft (30 m)
pylons
0
Additional length
required
14 miles
(22.5 km)
4.4.1.3. I-580/San Francisco Bay
Visualization -
The preliminary route is shown in yellow. Bend radii are
shown in red.
Route -
Follows I-580 to minimize land/right of way purchase costs.
Deviation from I-580 West of Dublin in order to develop
straight sections.
Page 50
Figure 31. I-580/San Francisco Bay Section of proposed Hyperloop route.
Table 6. I-580/San Francisco Bay Section data at 300, 555, and 760 mph (480, 890, and 1,120
kph, respectively).
Criteria
0.5g
Acceleration
Min. bend radius at
300 mph (480 kph)
2.28 miles
(3.67 km)
Min. bend radius at
555 mph (890 kph)
7.80 miles
(12.55 km)
Min. bend radius at
760 mph (1,220 kph)
14.6 miles
(23.5 km)
Distance
73.9 miles
(119 km)
Journey time
626.0 seconds
Tunnel distance
3.5 miles
(5.6 km)
No. of 20 ft (6 m)
pylons
2,783
No. of 50 ft (15 m)
pylons
775
No. of 100 ft (30 m)
pylons
159
Additional length
required
5.7 miles
(9.2 km)
Page 51
4.4.3. Station Locations
The major stations for Hyperloop are suggested based on high traffic regions
between major cities. The largest cities by metro population in California
according to 2010 to 2012 estimates from various sources (Table 7) are
considered for station locations.
Table 7. Largest cities in California by 2013 population.
City
Population
(millions)
Los Angeles
18.1
San
Francisco/San
Jose
8.4
San Diego
3.1
Sacramento
2.6
Fresno
1.1
Stations at these major population centers are considered for Hyperloop. One
additional traffic corridor to consider is between Los Angeles, California and
Las Vegas, Nevada with a metro population of 2.1 million. Significant traffic is
present through this corridor on a weekly basis.
Page 52
Figure 32. Suggested Hyperloop route map (map courtesy of Google Maps).
The traffic between Los Angeles, California and San Francisco/San Jose,
California is estimated to be at least 6 million travelers per year. This possibly
represents the busiest corridor of travel in California. Travel along this corridor
is anticipated to increase with completion of the Hyperloop due to both
decreased travel time and decreased travel cost.
Additional Hyperloop stations are suggested at the following major population
centers:
1.
San Diego, California:
a.
Connects to Los Angeles, California main station.
b.
Capsule departures every 5 minutes.
c.
Transports around 3 million people per year.
2.
Las Vegas, Nevada:
a.
Connects to Los Angeles, California main station.
b.
Uses a portion of the San Diego branch route near Los Angeles and
tube branches near San Bernardino, California.
c.
Capsule departures every 8 minutes.
Suggested main route
Suggested main stations
Proposed branches
Proposed branch stations
Page 53
d.
Transports around 1.8 million people per year.
3.
Sacramento, California:
a.
Connects to San Francisco, California main station.
b.
Uses a portion of the main route near San Francisco and tube
branches near Stockton, California.
c.
Capsule departures every 15 minutes.
d.
Transports around 1 million people per year.
4.
Fresno, California:
a.
Connects to both San Francisco, California and Los Angeles,
California main stations.
b.
Los Angeles bound travelers:
i.
Uses the main route closer to San Francisco plus a small
branch along State Route 41 near Fresno.
ii.
Capsule departures every 15 minutes.
iii.
Transports around 1 million people per year.
c.
San Francisco bound travelers:
i.
Uses the main route closer to Los Angeles plus a small
branch along State Route 41 near Fresno.
ii.
Capsule departures every 30 minutes.
iii.
Transports around 0.5 million people per year.
4.5. Safety and Reliability
The design of Hyperloop has been considered from the start with safety in
mind. Unlike other modes of transport, Hyperloop is a single system that
incorporates the vehicle, propulsion system, energy management, timing, and
route. Capsules travel in a carefully controlled and maintained tube
environment making the system is immune to wind, ice, fog, and rain. The
propulsion system is integrated into the tube and can only accelerate the
capsule to speeds that are safe in each section. With human control error and
unpredictable weather removed from the system, very few safety concerns
remain.
Some of the safety scenarios below are unique to the proposed system, but all
should be considered relative to other forms of transportation. In many cases
Hyperloop is intrinsically safer than airplanes, trains, or automobiles.
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