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çıxaraq, Ramana, Binəqədi, Balaxanı və Sabunçunun müsəlman fəhlələri bir qədər sonra həmkarlar
təşkilatına ayrılmış 3 nümayəndə yerindən ikisinin onlara verilməsini tələb etdilər. Azərbaycanın bir
sıra mahal və şəhərlərindən də deputat seçkiləri başa çatmamışdı. Naxçıvan və Borçalının da gələcəyi
məsələsi qaranlıq qaldığından oradan nümayəndə gəlməmişdi. [4, s.13-14].
1918-ci il dekabrın 3-də Azərbaycan parlamentinin (Məclisi-Məbusan) açılışı nəzərdə tutulurdu.
Baş nazir F.x.Xoyski yerlərdə seçkilərin keçirilməsinə ciddi nəzarət edir, parlamentin (Məclisi-
Məbusanın) tezlikə formalaşması üçün səylər göstərirdi. Azərbaycan Milli Şurası da seçkilərin
keçirilməsində fəal iştirak edirdi. Milli Şura 1918-ci il noyabrm 25-də erməni və rus milli şuralarma
muraciət edərək öz nümayəndələrini parlamentə (Məclisi-Məbusana) göndərməvi təklifi etdi. Hər iki
Şura parlamentdə iştirakdan imtina etdi. Erməni Milli Şurası bütün ermənilərin “mənafevini” parla-
mentdə təmsil edə bilməyəcəyini bəhanə gətirdi. Cənubi Qafqaz respublikalarının öz müstəqilliklərini
elan etmələri isə ümumilikdə Rus Milli Şurasının mənfi rəyi ilə qarşılandı. Belə ki, Rus Milli Şurası
Ümumrusiya Müəssislər Məclisi və beynəlxalq sülh konfransının yekun qərarlarının çıxarılmasına
qədər Qafqazda hər hansı bir dövlətin müstəqilliyini qəbul etmədiyini və Cənubi Qafqazı Rusiya
dövlətinin tərkib hissəsi kimi tanıdığını bəyan etdi [6, s.22]. Bütün bu təzyiqlərə baxmayaraq
parlament haqqında qanunda nəzərdə tutulmuş 120 deputatın əksəriyyətinin toplanması ilə 1918-ci il
dekabrın 7-də parlamentin açılışı oldu.
Parlamentin 1918-ci il dekabrm 15-də keçirilən üçüncü iclasında parlamentin təşkili barəsində
Milli Şura tərəfindən verilmiş qanun əsasmda, parlamentə seçilərək daxil olmuş deputatlar regional
milli şuralar tərəfmdən ictimai müəssisələrdən və qəzalardan göndərilmiş nümayəndələrdən ibarət
olmaqla müəyyən edilmişdir. Bütün bunlar yerlərdəkeçirilən seçkilərin müvəffəqiyyətlə başa çatdığını
göstərirdi. Bu iclasda etimadnamə komissiyasının məruzəsinə əsasən parlamentin bölgələr üzrə
aşağıdakı nümayəndələrinin etimadnamə və protokollarının qəbulu və təsdiqi göstərilmişdir.
Milli Şuranın parlament seçkiləri haqqmda qanunu qəzetlərdə nəşr edilmiş, protokolların
fonnası isə qubernator və bələdiyyərəislərinə göndərilmişdi. Azərbaycan parlamentinin yaradılmasının
huquqi əsaslarını muəyyənləşdirən “Azərbaycan Məclisi-Məbusanın təsisi haqqında”qanunda deputat-
ların (məbusların) muəyyən edilməsi qaydalan təsbit edilmişdi. Qanun bütün prosedur qaydaları
tənzimləyərək seçkilərin gizli səsvermə ilə keçirilməsi və 24 min əhaliyə bir deputat düşməsini
müəyyənləşdirmişdi. Qanunda göstərilirdi ki, cəlb olunacaq şəxslərin seçilməsi və seçkilərin nəticələri
şəhərlərdə bələdiyyə rəisləri, qəzalarda ədalət məhkəmələri və ya onlarınmüavinləri tərəfindən
keçiriləcək. Seçki qanunu,həmçinin, parlamentin (Mədisi-Məbusanrn) 44 nəfərdən ibarət olan keçmiş
Milli Şura üzvlərindən hər hansı birinin deputatlıqdan (məbusluqdan) istefa verməsi və va digər
səbəbdən parlamenti tərk etməsi (ölüm və s.), onun yerinə daxil olan fraksiyanın hər hansı digər bir
üzvününnamizədləri ilə əvəzlənməsi qaydasını da təsbit edirdi.
Parlamentdə demokratiya ənənələrindən çıxış edən parlamentarilər (məbuslar) etimadnamə
(mandat) komissiyasının hesabatında qanunun aliliyini rəhbər tutmaqla qanunverici orqan haqqında
Milli Şuranın qəbul etdiyi qanuna əməl olunması tələbini irəli sürür, qəzalardan göndərilmiş üzvlərin
həm seçki protokollarının, həm də etimadnamələrinin olmasını zəruri hesab edirdilər. Qanunun bir
maddəsini qəbul edib, digərini rədd etmək olmazdı. Parlamentin 1918-ci il dekabrın 15-də keçirilən
üçüncü iclasında parlamentin təşkili barəsində Milli Şura tərəfindən verilmiş qanun əsasmda,
parlamentə seçilərək daxil olmuş deputatlar regional milli şuralar tərəfindən ictimaimüəssisələrdən və
qəzalardan göndərilmiş nümayəndələrdən ibarət olmaqla müəyyən edilmişdir. Bütün bunlar yerlərdə
keçirilən seçkilərin müvəffəqiyyətlə başa çatdığını göstərirdi.
AXC parlamentarizm təcrübəsində deputatların mandatlarının təsdiq edilməsi qaydası üçüncü
iclasın əsas müzakirə mövzusu olmuşdur. Parlamentarilərin (məbusların) bir qismi mandatları təsdiq
edilməyincə məbusların parlamentin (Məclisi- Məbusan) işində iştirakını məqbul saymır, digərləri isə
seçki protokollarını qaydaya salana qədər səs vermək hüququ olmamaq şərtilə iştiraklarını mümkün
hesab edirdilər [6, s.35].
ƏDƏBIYYAT:
1.
Azərbaycan Xalq Cümhuriyyəti (1918-1920). Parlament (stenoqrafik hesabatlar): 2 cilddə, I c., Bakı, 1998, 427 s.
2.
Azərbaycan Demokratik Respublikası. Azərbaycan hökuməti 1918-1920. Bakı: Gənclik, 1990, 92 s.
3.
Əsədov O., Cəbrayılov R. Azərbaycan Respublikasının Parlamenti. Bakı, 2008, 519 s.
4.
Azərbaycan tarixi:7 cilddə,V c., Bakı:Elm, 2007, 584 s.
5.
Pərviz Sadayoğlu. Azərbaycan Xalq Cümhuriyyəti - Şərqdə ilk parlamentli respublika / “Yeni Azərbaycan” qəzeti, 26
may 2009-cu il, № 96
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATION: PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES
Baku Engineering University
355
26-27 October 2018, Baku, Azerbaijan
POLITICAL TENDENCIES IN GOVERNANCE
OF CENTRAL ASIAN STATES
İnci Abduləzizova
Bakı Mühəndislik Universiteti
inci.abdulazizova@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The region of central Asia situated amid Russia, China, India and Afghanistan accommodates five
independent post-soviet states, embroiled in shared history and embraced through common Turkic ethnicity
(with Tajikistan exception, who traces its identity to Persian roots). Though the region can be seen indivisible
from the outside, inside these nations are as much torn apart as they have in common. Another important factor
that draws attention of regional and global powers is rich hydro-carbon resources found in this region. Mainly
Kazakhstan (with 30 billion bbl proven oil reserves ranks 12
th
in the world [6]) and Turkmenistan (with 17.5
trillion m
3
natural gas reserves ranks 4
th
in the world [7]) have been gifted with huge oil and gas reservoirs.
Aside from significant geostrategic location and vast natural resources, Central Asian states are entangled in
governance problems, corruption, low human rights records and economic difficulties, just to mention a few. In
order to precise the focus area of study, this paper will be concentrated on governing problems, specifically on
divergent governing patterns of each five countries.
Keywords: Central Asia, democracy, media freedom, government functioning,
Introduction
Conceptualization: In order to improve aim and scope of the research some concepts need to be
clarified. First of all, the governance is the government’s ability to make and administer rules and to
provide services [11, 3]. Governance incorporates three key domains: state, private sector and civil
society. And for the functioning of good governance all these three parameters are expected to have
characteristics of efficiency, participation, rule of law, accountability and transparency[24, 159]. By
“tendencies” we mean the practices, principles, and reasons in the governance of those countries.
Methodology: This research is an explanatory research conducted on secondary data, provided
by organisations like Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Freedom House,
World Bank, Transparency International, Reporters Without Borders, Human Rights Watch, BTI
(Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index).
Political Governances of Central Asian States
A quick look to political governances of Central Asian states can be framed upon World Bank’s
classification on governance systems of nations in transition [33, 97-99]. Considering the fact that
Central Asian states succeeded independence through the dissolution of Soviet Union, this
classification will be successfully applied to “The Stans” (phrase referred to Central Asian states in
West). The classified four political systems are:
A) Competitive democracies-none of the Central Asian states fits these criteria.
B) Concentrated political regimes-systems in which multiparty elections are held with limited
political participation, Kyrgyzstan can be assigned to this group [5, 2].
C) Non-competitive political regimes-systems where entry of potential opposition party into
election process is constrained. Kazakhstan[14,15], Turkmenistan[1,394] and Uzbekistan[ 2, 81] fall
into this group.
D) War-torn political regimes-external or internal conflicts result in a loss of political order,
Tajikistan [31, 14-15] being the case.
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan with the highest GDP is the most economically developed country among Central
Asian states.
Country owes its speedy economic progress to rich oil and gas resources. However,
Kazakhstan does not achieve the same level of performance in political rights, civil liberties and media
freedom. And reforms adopted to enhance more democratic regime, strong civil society and media
freedom are anything but skilful manoeuvres of façade democracies [25]. Furthermore, set of
amendments made to the constitution over the years have served to consolidate power for president
and his party.
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATION: PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES
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Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian state whose incumbent president is still in office since
independence of the country. During his tenure of more than 25 years Nazarbayev made sure that no
reliable political alternative to his reign would occur. And the latest presidential election held prior the
schedule in 2015 was noted by OSCE to entail instances of fraud, lacking genuine opposition, having
huge advantages for the incumbent president and lacking transparency [19,4]. Moreover Parliamentary
elections held in 2016, according to OSCE observers did not fulfil the fundamental democratic
principles, either. Elections “were efficiently organized, with some progress noted, but indicate that
Kazakhstan still has a considerable way to go in meeting its OSCE commitments for democratic
elections…”[20,3].
But unlike counterparts in the region, Kazakhstan is governed by a more enlightened
authoritarian regime. Thanks to profits coming from oil revenues government has been able to grant
economic security and stability to its citizens. But political freedoms and rights are hardly enjoyed by
its citizens, though the Constitution of the country grants wide range of rights and freedoms. In recent
years Kazakhstan performed poorly at functioning of government and rule of law as well. Decline in
price of oil have contributed in great to this outcome. Fortunately, Kazakhstan is not the worst
example of democracy in the region. Kazakhstan’s democratic potentials seem to be more promising
in comparison with Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan is the only country in the region which is not characterized as a “consolidated
authoritarian regime”. Country has gone through two revolutions, several constitutional changes, two
presidential abdications and transition from presidential to parliamentary system since independence.
After 2010 revolution, with the intention of “to make a return to authoritarianism
impossible”[15,1], Kyrgyzstan made a transition to parliamentary system. But the new constitution
does not set a pure parliamentary system of government. President still enjoys certain significant
executive functions. Constitutional amendments made in 2010 expanded parliamentarians from 90 to
120 and no party is allowed to hold more than 65 seats. President serves a six-year term in office
having no possibility of re-election. 2011 presidential election commemorated the final step of
transition period after 2010 revolution. According to OSCE report election was held in peaceful
manner, candidate registration was wide-range, voters were given wide choice and electoral campaign
respected fundamental freedoms, however significant irregularities were witnessed in process of
counting and arrangement of votes[15,3]. 2015 parliamentary elections displayed higher level of
impartiality and political pluralism than it did before, and it was described to be “competitive and
provided voters with a wide range of choice, while the manner in which they were administered
highlighted the need for better procedures and increased transparency”[18,3]. And according to
International Crises Group, 2015 parliamentary election reminded an auction: ensuring a place on a
party list could cost politicians up to $500.000 [9].
As in Kazakhstan, corruption is widespread in Kyrgyzstan as well. In order to tackle the issue
Anti-Corruption Service was created in 2010. Government has undertaken several other reforms, too.
But their effectiveness is being undermined by a corrupt judiciary system. After all some progress has
been made. In 2013 twelve former officials faced charges of corruption over a deal with Canadian
Gold Company [17]. And in 2015 the head of president’s office D. Narymbaev was arrested on
charges of fraud [27]. Another former Kyrgyz official, ex-Bishkek mayor N. Tuleev was found guilty
of corruption and charged with 11 years in prison [10]. While some positive results have been
achieved with the prosecution of senior officials, Kyrgyz government’s war on corruption can still be
described as a failure. Because Kyrgyzstan ranks 135
th
in Transparency International Corruption
Perception Index.
Though Kyrgyzstan is far ahead of the other Central Asian states, it still has much to do to reach
democratic governance, rule of law and strong civil society. Referendum held in December 11, 2016
on constitutional changes seems to promise little for democratization. The amendments foresee
strengthening prime minister’s powers in respect to that of Kyrgyzstan’s parliament. With these
constitutional changes, authorities will have the power to deprive Kyrgyz nationals of citizenship if
they join Islamist groups [8]. Kyrgyzstan has to confront difficult questions that still challenge the
country, such as north-south division, ethnic conflicts, rising religious radicalization, failure of
physical and social infrastructure.
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Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan has gained a reputation to be one of the most repressive regimes of the 21
st
century. Turkmenistan has never experienced free and fair elections since its independence, and it is
not an electoral democracy. Elections in Turkmenistan have preserved many aspects of the Soviet-era
examples; actually electoral system of the country resembles that of the Soviet system [4, 27].
Berdymukhammedov was formally elected to his first term in office in 2007. He was re-elected for
second time in 2012 receiving 97% of the vote [3, 8].
2012 presidential election was the second in the
history of Turkmenistan since independence to feature more than one candidate. The candidates were
handicapped and associated with the ruling party. And as like presidential election of 2012,
parliamentary election of 2013 was marked to be first multi-party elections to unicameral Mejlis [32].
While government declares that these election will proclaim a new phase of Turkmenistan’s
democracy, in reality opposition is forbidden and human rights group’s activists have gone missing or
jailed [28]. And though OSCE/ODIHR election observation mission was not invited in 2012
presidential election, during 2013 parliamentary elections limited participation was welcomed by the
government[21].
Turkmenistan is one of the most corrupt countries of the world. Almost in all indices evaluating
corruption and economic freedom around the world, Turkmenistan commonly comes at the bottom
ranks. Rich hydrocarbon resources of the country favor the well-being of only small elite group around
the president. And 45% of the country’s wealth is controlled by 4% of the Turkmen population, in
sharp contrast to 60% of the families who do not possess even their own homes[13]. With the adoption
of the first legislation “On Combatting Corruption” almost nothing has changed in the country. As
president has consolidated a tight control on power, any information on corruption cases can hardly be
noticed in Turkmen media.
Tajikistan
Tajikistan was one of the poorest states in Soviet Union, and since independence economic
situation of the country has little improved. Unlike counterparts of the region Tajikistan has gone
through devastating civil war once it became independent. Five years of civil war divided country into
two camps: Russian backed ruling elite and Islamist Tajik opposition. Though civil war ended with
power-sharing agreement, Islamist opposition was not allowed to operate fully within the agreement
framework. And sharing border with Afghanistan Tajikistan is face-to-face with the threat of religious
radicalisation.
Free and fair conduct of election process is not adequately ensured by Tajikistan’s electoral
laws. Actually the country’s Electoral Law constantly has been subject of criticism by western
countries, OSCE and EU. 2015 Parliamentary elections “took place in a restricted political space...
Although the government stated its ambition to hold democratic elections,… restrictions on the right
to stand, freedoms of expression and assembly, and access to media limited the opportunity to make a
free and informed choice”[22]. And European Parliament’s representative Norbet Neuser stated that
he was pleased with the peaceful conduct of elections, however
“significant shortcomings, including
multiple voting and ballot-box stuffing, and disregard of counting procedures meant that an honest
count could not be guaranteed.”[30]
Real political opposition is pervasive in Tajikistan, however with Tajik Constitution providing a
strong presidential post, Emamoli Rakhmonov has consolidated all power under his control, and
political opposition has little impact on accountability and credibility of the government.
Corruption is a serious problem in Tajikistan. Almost all sectors of the economy run on bribery
and gifts. Patronage and clientelism hinder competitive business environment[12]. State resources are
extorted to provide financial interests and private gains of ruling elite, whereas the needs and
necessities of citizens are hardly fulfilled by the government. And a report issued by the Bureau of
Economic and Business Affairs of the US Department of State describing financial risks to business
investors and the problem of government corruption has received furious reaction from Tajik
officials[29].
Uzbekistan
In September 2, 2016 Uzbekistan’s long-term president Islam Kerimov died following a stroke.
After 25 years of authoritarian rule Uzbekistan elected a new president, Shavkat Mirziyoyev. Though
political leadership changed, Uzbekistan still remains one of the most repressive countries of the
world.
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATION: PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES
Baku Engineering University
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26-27 October 2018, Baku, Azerbaijan
When Uzbekistan became independent in early 1990s, the government set a goal of establishing
a multiparty democracy. However this agenda went unrealized. Since the first days of independence
till the present, seven political parties were registered by the Justice Ministry of Uzbekistan[26, 58].
And at the moment out of seven only four political parties are still registered.
Central Asia might be considered one of the world’s worst regions, when the matter is
corruption. And Uzbekistan may be regarded to be the worst example of the region. Corruption is
persistent at all levels of government and public administration, bribery, extortion, abuse of office and
nepotism is widespread. Cotton industry in Uzbekistan particularly has been in the focus of
international attention. The sector is characterized as a corrupt mechanism in which “… money
disappears into a mysterious fund that’s off the budget”[23]
.
Whereas Uzbek Criminal Code forbids
bribery, embezzlement and any other corruption related acts, it does not fully meet international anti-
corruption standards. In an attempt to demonstrate political will of the government to fight corruption
Uzbekistan joined Istanbul Anti-Corruption Action Plan in 2010. However prosecutions against
several well-known business people in 2010 were not based on corruption charges, on the contrary
government’s “war on corruption” was selective and indicated power struggle within the elite[16, 10-
12]. And in a most well-known corruption scandal in 2012, Gulnara Karimova- former president Islam
Karimov’s eldest daughter, lost her business empire facing allegations of corruption for accepting
more than $1 billion from telecom companies.
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