Pilgrim’s Progress,
29
by far the most
widely read book of the whole Puritan literature. In the descrip-
tion of Christian’s attitude after he had realized that he was
living in the City of Destruction and he had received the call to
take up his pilgrimage to the celestial city, wife and children
cling to him, but stopping his ears with his fingers and crying,
“life, eternal life”, he staggers forth across the fields. No refine-
ment could surpass the naïve feeling of the tinker who, writing
in his prison cell, earned the applause of a believing world, in
expressing the emotions of the faithful Puritan, thinking only of
his own salvation. It is expressed in the unctuous conversations
which he holds with fellow-seekers on the way, in a manner
somewhat reminiscent of Gottfried Keller’s Gerechte Kammacher.
Only when he himself is safe does it occur to him that it would
be nice to have his family with him. It is the same anxious fear of
death and the beyond which we feel so vividly in Alfonso of
Liguori, as Döllinger has described him to us. It is worlds
removed from that spirit of proud worldliness which Machi-
avelli expresses in relating the fame of those Florentine citizens
who, in their struggle against the Pope and his excommunica-
tion, had held “Love of their native city higher than the fear for
the salvation of their souls”. And it is of course even farther from
the feelings which Richard Wagner puts into the mouth of
Siegmund before his fatal combat, “Grüsse mir Wotan, grüsse
mir Wallhall—Doch von Wallhall’s spröden Wonnen sprich du
wahrlich mir nicht”. But the effects of this fear on Bunyan and
Liguori are characteristically different. The same fear which
drives the latter to every conceivable self-humiliation spurs the
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
63
former on to a restless and systematic struggle with life. Whence
comes this difference?
It seems at first a mystery how the undoubted superiority of
Calvinism in social organization can be connected with this ten-
dency to tear the individual away from the closed ties with
which he is bound to this world.
30
But, however strange it may
seem, it follows from the peculiar form which the Christian
brotherly love was forced to take under the pressure of the inner
isolation of the individual through the Calvinistic faith. In the
fi
rst place it follows dogmatically.
31
The world exists to serve the
glorification of God and for that purpose alone. The elected
Christian is in the world only to increase this glory of God by
fulfilling His commandments to the best of his ability. But God
requires social achievement of the Christian because He wills
that social life shall be organized according to His command-
ments, in accordance with that purpose. The social
32
activity of
the Christian in the world is solely activity in majorem gloriam Dei.
This character is hence shared by labour in a calling which serves
the mundane life of the community. Even in Luther we found
specialized labour in callings justified in terms of brotherly love.
But what for him remained an uncertain, purely intellectual sug-
gestion became for the Calvinists a characteristic element in
their ethical system. Brotherly love, since it may only be prac-
tised for the glory of God
33
and not in the service of the flesh,
34
is expressed in the first place in the fulfilment of the daily tasks
given by the lex naturæ and in the process this fulfilment assumes a
peculiarly objective and impersonal character, that of service in
the interest of the rational organization of our social environ-
ment. For the wonderfully purposeful organization and
arrangement of this cosmos is, according both to the revelation
of the Bible and to natural intuition, evidently designed by God
to serve the utility of the human race. This makes labour in the
service of impersonal social usefulness appear to promote the
glory of God and hence to be willed by Him. The complete
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
64
elimination of the theodicy problem and of all those questions
about the meaning of the world and of life, which have tortured
others, was as self-evident to the Puritan as, for quite different
reasons, to the Jew, and even in a certain sense to all the non-
mystical types of Christian religion.
To this economy of forces Calvinism added another tendency
which worked in the same direction. The conflict between the
individual and the ethic (in Sören Kierkegaard’s sense) did not
exist for Calvinism, although it placed the individual entirely on
his own responsibility in religious matters. This is not the place
to analyse the reasons for this fact, or its significance for the
political and economic rationalism of Calvinism. The source of
the utilitarian character of Calvinistic ethics lies here, and
important peculiarities of the Calvinistic idea of the calling were
derived from the same source as well.
35
But for the moment we
must return to the special consideration of the doctrine of
predestination.
For us the decisive problem is: How was this doctrine borne
36
in an age to which the after-life was not only more important,
but in many ways also more certain, than all the interests of life
in this world?
37
The question, Am I one of the elect? must sooner
or later have arisen for every believer and have forced all other
interests into the background. And how can I be sure of this state
of grace?
38
For Calvin himself this was not a problem. He felt
himself to be a chosen agent of the Lord, and was certain of his
own salvation. Accordingly, to the question of how the indi-
vidual can be certain of his own election, he has at bottom only
the answer that we should be content with the knowledge that
God has chosen and depend further only on that implicit trust in
Christ which is the result of true faith. He rejects in principle the
assumption that one can learn from the conduct of others
whether they are chosen or damned. It is an unjustifiable attempt
to force God’s secrets. The elect differ externally in this life in no
way from the damned
39
; and even all the subjective experiences
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
65
of the chosen are, as ludibria spiritus sancti, possible for the damned
with the single exception of that finaliter expectant, trusting faith.
The elect thus are and remain God’s invisible Church.
Quite naturally this attitude was impossible for his followers
as early as Beza, and, above all, for the broad mass of ordinary
men. For them the certitudo salutis in the sense of the recogniz-
ability of the state of grace necessarily became of absolutely
dominant importance.
40
So, wherever the doctrine of predestin-
ation was held, the question could not be suppressed whether
there were any infallible criteria by which membership in the
electi could be known. Not only has this question continually had
a central importance in the development of the Pietism which
fi
rst arose on the basis of the Reformed Church; it has in fact in a
certain sense at times been fundamental to it. But when we
consider the great political and social importance of the
Reformed doctrine and practice of the Communion, we shall see
how great a part was played during the whole seventeenth cen-
tury outside of Pietism by the possibility of ascertaining the state
of grace of the individual. On it depended, for instance, his
admission to Communion, i.e. to the central religious ceremony
which determined the social standing of the participants.
It was impossible, at least so far as the question of a man’s
own state of grace arose, to be satisfied
41
with Calvin’s trust in
the testimony of the expectant faith resulting from grace, even
though the orthodox doctrine had never formally abandoned
that criterion.
42
Above all, practical pastoral work, which had
immediately to deal with all the suffering caused by the doc-
trine, could not be satisfied. It met these difficulties in various
ways.
43
So far as predestination was not reinterpreted, toned
down, or fundamentally abandoned,
44
two principal, mutually
connected, types of pastoral advice appear. On the one hand it is
held to be an absolute duty to consider oneself chosen, and to
combat all doubts as temptations of the devil,
45
since lack of self-
confidence is the result of insufficient faith, hence of imperfect
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
66
grace. The exhortation of the apostle to make fast one’s own call
is here interpreted as a duty to attain certainty of one’s own
election and justification in the daily struggle of life. In the place
of the humble sinners to whom Luther promises grace if they
trust themselves to God in penitent faith are bred those self-
confident saints
46
whom we can rediscover in the hard Puritan
merchants of the heroic age of capitalism and in isolated
instances down to the present. On the other hand, in order to
attain that self-confidence intense worldly activity is recom-
mended as the most suitable means.
47
It and it alone disperses
religious doubts and gives the certainty of grace.
That worldly activity should be considered capable of this
achievement, that it could, so to speak, be considered the most
suitable means of counteracting feelings of religious anxiety,
fi
nds its explanation in the fundamental peculiarities of religious
feeling in the Reformed Church, which come most clearly to
light in its differences from Lutheranism in the doctrine of justi-
fi
cation by faith. These differences are analysed so subtly and
with such objectivity and avoidance of value-judgments in Sch-
neckenburger’s excellent lectures,
48
that the following brief
observations can for the most part simply rest upon his
discussion.
The highest religious experience which the Lutheran faith
strives to attain, especially as it developed in the course of the
seventeenth century, is the unio mystica with the deity.
49
As the
name itself, which is unknown to the Reformed faith in this
form, suggests, it is a feeling of actual absorption in the deity,
that of a real entrance of the divine into the soul of the believer. It
is qualitatively similar to the aim of the contemplation of the
German mystics and is characterized by its passive search for the
fulfilment of the yearning for rest in God.
Now the history of philosophy shows that religious belief
which is primarily mystical may very well be compatible with a
pronounced sense of reality in the field of empirical fact; it may
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
67
even support it directly on account of the repudiation of dia-
lectic doctrines. Furthermore, mysticism may indirectly even
further the interests of rational conduct. Nevertheless, the posi-
tive valuation of external activity is lacking in its relation to the
world. In addition to this, Lutheranism combines the unio mystica
with that deep feeling of sin-stained unworthiness which is
essential to preserve the pœnitentia quotidiana of the faithful
Lutheran, thereby maintaining the humility and simplicity
indispensable for the forgiveness of sins. The typical religion of
the Reformed Church, on the other hand, has from the begin-
ning repudiated both this purely inward emotional piety of
Lutheranism and the Quietist escape from everything of Pascal.
A real penetration of the human soul by the divine was made
impossible by the absolute transcendentality of God compared
to the flesh: finitum non est capax infiniti. The community of the elect
with their God could only take place and be perceptible to them
in that God worked (operatur) through them and that they were
conscious of it. That is, their action originated from the faith
caused by God’s grace, and this faith in turn justified itself by
the quality of that action. Deep-lying differences of the most
important conditions of salvation
50
which apply to the classifica-
tion of all practical religious activity appear here. The religious
believer can make himself sure of his state of grace either in that
he feels himself to be the vessel of the Holy Spirit or the tool of
the divine will. In the former case his religious life tends to
mysticism and emotionalism, in the latter to ascetic action;
Luther stood close to the former type, Calvinism belonged defi-
nitely to the latter. The Calvinist also wanted to be saved sola fide.
But since Calvin viewed all pure feelings and emotions, no mat-
ter how exalted they might seem to be, with suspicion,
51
faith
had to be proved by its objective results in order to provide a
fi
rm foundation for the certitudo salutis. It must be a fides efficax,
52
the call to salvation an effectual calling (expression used in
Savoy Declaration).
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
68
If we now ask further, by what fruits the Calvinist thought
himself able to identify true faith? the answer is: by a type of
Christian conduct which served to increase the glory of God.
Just what does so serve is to be seen in his own will as revealed
either directly through the Bible or indirectly through the pur-
poseful order of the world which he has created (lex naturæ).
53
Especially by comparing the condition of one’s own soul with
that of the elect, for instance the patriarchs, according to the
Bible, could the state of one’s own grace be known.
54
Only one
of the elect really has the fides efficax,
55
only he is able by virtue of
his rebirth (regeneratio) and the resulting sanctification (sanctificatio)
of his whole life, to augment the glory of God by real, and not
merely apparent, good works. It was through the consciousness
that his conduct, at least in its fundamental character and con-
stant ideal (propositum obœdientiæ), rested on a power
56
within him-
self working for the glory of God; that it is not only willed of
God but rather done by God
57
that he attained the highest good
towards which this religion strove, the certainty of salvation.
58
That it was attainable was proved by 2 Cor. xiii. 5.
59
Thus, how-
ever useless good works might be as a means of attaining salva-
tion, for even the elect remain beings of the flesh, and everything
they do falls infinitely short of divine standards, nevertheless,
they are indispensable as a sign of election.
60
They are the tech-
nical means, not of purchasing salvation, but of getting rid of the
fear of damnation. In this sense they are occasionally referred to
as directly necessary for salvation
61
or the possessio salutis is made
conditional on them.
62
In practice this means that God helps those who help them-
selves.
63
Thus the Calvinist, as it is sometimes put, himself
creates
64
his own salvation, or, as would be more correct, the
conviction of it. But this creation cannot, as in Catholicism, con-
sist in a gradual accumulation of individual good works to one’s
credit, but rather in a systematic self-control which at every
moment stands before the inexorable alternative, chosen or
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
69
damned. This brings us to a very important point in our
investigation.
It is common knowledge that Lutherans have again and again
accused this line of thought, which was worked out in the
Reformed Churches and sects with increasing clarity,
65
of rever-
sion to the doctrine of salvation by works.
66
And however justi-
fi
ed the protest of the accused against identification of their
dogmatic position with the Catholic doctrine, this accusation has
surely been made with reason if by it is meant the practical
consequences for the everyday life of the average Christian of the
Reformed Church.
67
For a more intensive form of the religious
valuation of moral action than that to which Calvinism led its
adherents has perhaps never existed. But what is important for
the practical significance of this sort of salvation by works must
be sought in a knowledge of the particular qualities which char-
acterized their type of ethical conduct and distinguished it from
the everyday life of an average Christian of the Middle Ages. The
difference may well be formulated as follows: the normal
mediæval Catholic layman
68
lived ethically, so to speak, from
hand to mouth. In the first place he conscientiously fulfilled his
traditional duties. But beyond that minimum his good works did
not necessarily form a connected, or at least not a rationalized,
system of life, but rather remained a succession of individual
acts. He could use them as occasion demanded, to atone for
particular sins, to better his chances for salvation, or, toward the
end of his life, as a sort of insurance premium. Of course the
Catholic ethic was an ethic of intentions. But the concrete intentio
of the single act determined its value. And the single good or bad
action was credited to the doer determining his temporal and
eternal fate. Quite realistically the Church recognized that man
was not an absolutely clearly defined unity to be judged one way
or the other, but that his moral life was normally subject to
conflicting motives and his action contradictory. Of course, it
required as an ideal a change of life in principle. But it weakened
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
70
just this requirement (for the average) by one of its most
important means of power and education, the sacrament of
absolution, the function of which was connected with the deep-
est roots of the peculiarly Catholic religion.
The rationalization of the world, the elimination of magic as a
means to salvation,
69
the Catholics had not carried nearly so far
as the Puritans (and before them the Jews) had done. To the
Catholic
70
the absolution of his Church was a compensation for
his own imperfection. The priest was a magician who performed
the miracle of transubstantiation, and who held the key to
eternal life in his hand. One could turn to him in grief and
penitence. He dispensed atonement, hope of grace, certainty of
forgiveness, and thereby granted release from that tremendous
tension to which the Calvinist was doomed by an inexorable
fate, admitting of no mitigation. For him such friendly and
human comforts did not exist. He could not hope to atone for
hours of weakness or of thoughtlessness by increased good will
at other times, as the Catholic or even the Lutheran could. The
God of Calvinism demanded of his believers not single good
works, but a life of good works combined into a unified sys-
tem.
71
There was no place for the very human Catholic cycle of
sin, repentance, atonement, release, followed by renewed sin.
Nor was there any balance of merit for a life as a whole which
could be adjusted by temporal punishments or the Churches’
means of grace.
The moral conduct of the average man was thus deprived of
its planless and unsystematic character and subjected to a con-
sistent method for conduct as a whole. It is no accident that the
name of Methodists stuck to the participants in the last great
revival of Puritan ideas in the eighteenth century just as the
term Precisians, which has the same meaning, was applied to
their spiritual ancestors in the seventeenth century.
72
For only
by a fundamental change in the whole meaning of life at every
moment and in every action
73
could the effects of grace
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
71
transforming a man from the status naturæ to the status gratiæ be
proved.
The life of the saint was directed solely toward a transcen-
dental end, salvation. But precisely for that reason it was thor-
oughly rationalized in this world and dominated entirely by the
aim to add to the glory of God on earth. Never has the precept
omnia in majorem dei gloriam been taken with more bitter serious-
ness.
74
Only a life guided by constant thought could achieve
conquest over the state of nature. Descartes’s cogito ergo sum was
taken over by the contemporary Puritans with this ethical
reinterpretation.
75
It was this rationalization which gave the
Reformed faith its peculiar ascetic tendency, and is the basis both
of its relationship
76
to and its conflict with Catholicism. For
naturally similar things were not unknown to Catholicism.
Without doubt Christian asceticism, both outwardly and in its
inner meaning, contains many different things. But it has had a
definitely rational character in its highest Occidental forms as
early as the Middle Ages, and in several forms even in antiquity.
The great historical significance of Western monasticism, as con-
trasted with that of the Orient, is based on this fact, not in all
cases, but in its general type. In the rules of St. Benedict, still
more with the monks of Cluny, again with the Cistercians, and
most strongly the Jesuits, it has become emancipated from plan-
less otherworldliness and irrational self-torture. It had developed
a systematic method of rational conduct with the purpose of
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