Pearson
’s correlations were used to assess the relationship of
maximal core temperature and time above 38.3°C to event
duration, hydration status (USG), BSA, and BMI.
Statistical analyses were conducted using the PASW Sta-
tistics 18 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Illinois). A priori power cal-
culation suggested that with group sample sizes of 10 each,
there was 80% power to detect a difference of 0.59°C
between groups with signi
ficance level of p < 0.05.
RESULTS
All participants started the BMDM. Two participants (1 trans-
tibial, 1 transfemoral) with amputations did not
finish the
event: one due to prosthesis malfunction and a second
opted to complete the 15.2-mile honorary march due to
pain. Data for these participants were not included in the
analysis. One control group participant
’s temperature reader
malfunctioned rendering the data unusable. As a result, data
from 17 participants (9 control, 8 amputation) were used in
the analyses. The groups were well matched in anthropomet-
rics, with the exceptions that the control group was older
( p = 0.029) and the amputation group was taller ( p = 0.038)
( Table I).
There was no signi
ficant difference in maximal core tem-
perature between the groups ( p = 0.27) (Table II). Nearly
all participants (8 control, 6 amputation) reached the thresh-
old of 38.3°C (Fig. 1). Maximal core temperature for the
amputation group ranged from 38.2 to 38.8°C. For the con-
trol group, maximal core temperature ranged from 38.1 to
39.0°C. No subjects reached 40.0°C. Time spent above the
38.3°C threshold was not signi
ficantly different between
groups (Table II) but varied widely by participant in relation
to the duration of the event.
The control group
finished the event faster than the ampu-
tation group ( p = 0.01). There was no signi
ficant correlation
between event duration and time above 38.3°C or max core
temp (Fig. 1). There were no signi
ficant correlations between
hydration, BSA, and BMI with either maximal core tempera-
ture or time above 38.3°C.
DISCUSSION
The primary objective of this study was to compare changes
in core body temperature in individuals with and without
amputations during a prolonged endurance event. Although
we hypothesized that participants with amputations would
have higher core temperatures than participants without
amputations during the 26.2-mile BMDM, the data collected
did not support this hypothesis. Speci
fically, all metrics were
similar between the two groups, except time to completion.
When walking at similar speeds individuals with amputa-
tions may expend up to 33% more energy than individuals
TABLE I.
Participant Demographics for Participants With and
Without Amputation
With Amputation
(n = 8)
Without Amputation
(n = 9)
Age (Year)
26.1 ± 3.6*
33.3 ± 7.7
Height (cm)
181.9 ± 5.2*
176.4 ± 4.8
Weight (kg)
a
92.3 ± 18.9
84.4 ± 11.2
BMI (kg/m
2
)
a
27.8 ± 4.5
27.2 ± 4.1
BSA Adjusted
b
4.46 ± 0.98
4.14 ± 0.55
Body Fat %
18.0 ± 8.9
19.6 ± 5.5
Muscle Mass (g)
65,996 ± 10,918
63,685 ± 5,629
Fat Mass (g)
18,978 ± 8,527
16,773 ± 6,667
Data are mean ± SD.
a
Weight for amputation group is adjusted to account
for missing limb proportion; adjusted weight used to calculate BMI for
same subjects.
b
BSA for amputation group is adjusted to account for miss-
ing limb proportion. *Signi
ficantly different than control group at p < 0.05.
TABLE II.
Event Measures for Participants With and Without
Amputation
With
Amputation
(n = 8)
Without
Amputation
(n = 9)
Maximum Core Temperature (°C)
38.56 ± 0.23
38.64 ± 0.26
Time to Maximum
Core Temp (Minutes)
390 ± 124
344 ± 143
Time to 38.3°C (Minutes)
293 ± 161
206 ± 178
Time Above 38.3°C (Minutes)
101 ± 83
128 ± 113
USG Postevent
1.021 ± 0.011
1.022 ± 0.008
Weight Loss at End of Event (kg)
1.55 ± 1.12
1.72 ± 1.01
Weight Loss %
1.78 ± 1.32
1.87 ± 1.08
Duration of Event (Hour)
9.6 ± 0.96*
7.9 ± 1.4
Data are mean ± SD. *Signi
ficantly different than control group at p = 0.01.
MILITARY MEDICINE, Vol. 181, November/December Supplement 2016
63
Core Temperature in Service Members With and Without Traumatic Amputations
without amputations.
7,18,19
Although participants with ampu-
tations marched at a slower pace than their counterparts,
they may have been working at a similar metabolic rate due
to gait differences observed in previous studies.
20
Metabolic
rate during exercise is an important determinant of core tem-
perature,
21
which may explain the similarities in core tem-
perature between groups in the present study.
Similarly, heavy exercise in hyperthermal conditions at
a constant workload or pace is associated with limited per-
formance time and greater oxygen uptake.
22
In marathons
where an individual is able to self-select pace, pace was
slower by 2% in elite runners and 10% in less-trained run-
ners as the ambient temperature increased.
23
We suspect that
participants in the BMDM inherently adjusted their pace to
mitigate the metabolic-related increase in core temperature,
thereby affecting their time to completion.
Participants without amputations were slightly older on
average than the group with amputations. However, studies
conducted in hot environments have shown that age does
not signi
ficantly affect thermoregulatory function.
24,25
One of the most frequently reported reasons for not
wearing a prosthesis is heat and consequent sweating of
the residual limb.
26,27
We hypothesized that the prosthesis
and liner could inhibit heat dissipation, which might cause
core body temperature to rise more substantially and quickly
with exercise. The variables of BSA and adjusted BSA with
prosthesis liner, however, did not signi
ficantly correlate with
core temperature. Seven of the 9 participants with amputa-
tions had transtibial amputations, which made compari-
sons between levels of amputation, and therefore BSA,
more challenging.
There was no correlation between hydration status and
maximum core temperature (r = 0.09, p = 0.69), consis-
tent with other research conducted in an outdoor environ-
ment.
28,29
Participants in this study lost less than 2% of their
body weight, which is under levels previously reported to
affect core temperature and within the guidelines for hydra-
tion during exercise.
3,30
Previous studies have shown that
adequate
fluid replacement during exercise may help attenu-
ate the rise in core temperature.
31
Unlike this study, how-
ever, many of those studies controlled
fluid intake.
32
It is possible that the relatively mild temperatures during
the BMDM, which ranged from 12 to 23°C, were not in the
hyperthermal ranges tested in other studies that showed sig-
ni
ficant differences between conditions.
22,23
The low relative
humidity of 10 to 25% and average wind speed during the
BMDM ranged 5 to 15 miles per hour most likely assisted
in heat dissipation,
2,3
as well.
The main limitation in this study is the small sample size
and possibility of a type 2 error. The loss of three partici-
pants degraded the ability to detect statistical differences and
required the analyses to be limited in complexity. A larger
sample size would allow analyses that controlled for the
effect of all of the covariates on core temperature during
exercise. To provide a more complete understanding of the
role of hydration and sweat rate in body temperature regula-
tion, future studies should monitor
fluid intake, food intake,
and urination during the event, in addition to weight before
and after. The results are promising, though, in suggesting
future research related to the effect of workload or pace on
core temperature.
The results of this study suggest that people with amputa-
tions may not be at higher risk for heat injury when exercising
at a self-selected pace in moderate conditions. Until conclusive
evidence is accumulated, however, it is prudent for trainers
and military service members to closely monitor this popula-
tion during physical activity to prevent heat injuries. Future
research that is adequately powered is needed to fully investi-
gate the potential differences in core temperature between ser-
vice members with and without amputations during prolonged
exercise. Additional research should be performed in addi-
tional conditions with greater heat stress to validate the pre-
liminary
findings of this study will ensure adequate safety
protocols are developed and procedures are implemented to
decrease risk of heat injury for military service members and
athletes with and without lower limb amputation.
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Core Temperature in Service Members With and Without Traumatic Amputations
MILITARY MEDICINE, 181, 11/12:66, 2016
A Review of Unique Considerations for Female Veterans
With Amputation
COL Billie J. Randolph, SP USA (Ret.)*†; Leif M. Nelson, DPT*†; CPT M. Jason Highsmith, SP USAR*†‡
ABSTRACT This article explores unique considerations that face both women living with limb loss and their health
care providers. This demographic of patient has a higher rate of arti
ficial limb rejection, thus challenging providers to
address needs for cosmesis and function that varies from those of male counterparts. Health care providers for women
with amputations, such as the Veterans Affairs, must evolve health care delivery, research practices, and work jointly
with industry in order to meet the needs of this population.
Of the estimated 1.6 million people living with limb loss in
the United States in 2005, approximately 35% were female.
Among the Americans living with amputation, 45% were of
traumatic etiology and 19% of this subgroup were female.
1
Despite these numbers, females with amputation are studied
less than their male counterparts in prosthetic and amputee
rehabilitation research thereby limiting evidentiary support
for clinical decision-making in this demographic.
Within the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA),
female Veterans represent an expanding component of the
overall Veteran population. Nine percent of the overall Vet-
eran population is female,
2
and women make up 12% of the
personnel for Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), Operation
Iraqi Freedom (OIF), and Operation New Dawn (OND).
Female Veterans with amputation make up approximately
2% of the Veteran amputee population. In 2013, the Veterans
Health Administration served 1,805 female Veterans with
amputations including 53 who served in OEF/OIF/OND.
A 2012 report from the VA Of
fice of the Inspector
General cited OEF/OIF/OND Veterans with amputations are
signi
ficant users of all health care services and require com-
prehensive interdisciplinary care to meet their needs.
2
Within
VA, female Veterans with amputation are seen more fre-
quently for rehabilitative and prosthetic services than their
male counterparts. Providers caring for female amputees
should consider that one in
five female Veterans screen posi-
tive for military sexual trauma and they are 22% more likely
to be diagnosed with a mental health condition compared to
male Veterans. Additionally, female Veterans are twice as
likely to be homeless
3
and have a higher unemployment rate
for 25- to 44-year-olds compared to female non-Veterans in
the same age range in the United States.
4
Of all women with
amputation that have domiciles, 57% are likely to live alone
compared to 36% of males with amputations.
5
Women generally require smaller prosthetic components
compared to men because of their smaller bone structure
and muscle mass.
6
–9
Commercially available prosthetic com-
ponents are not gender speci
fic and may be designed more
with typical male anthropometry, biomechanics, and func-
tion in mind. Therefore, dissatisfaction with prosthetic
fit
and appearance tends to be higher in the female population
living with limb loss.
10
Collectively, poor cosmesis, few
female-speci
fic components, heavy prosthetic weight, com-
bined with socket
fitting challenges can lead to skin integrity
concerns, pistoning, and unwanted noise. Although there is
no gender difference in use of upper limb prostheses by
individuals with congenital limb loss, 80% of females with
acquired proximal amputations reject their prosthesis com-
pared to 15% of males.
11
There seem to be no differences across gender for inten-
sity or frequency of residual limb pain or phantom limb
pain. However, females with amputations tend to report
greater pain, and that pain interferes with function to a
greater extent than males.
12
This pain also interferes with
activities of daily living including recreational and social
activities, communication, self-care, and learning new skills.
Functional outcome is not impacted by gender in the
same way it is affected by etiology, level of amputation or age
as measured by the 2-minute walk test.
13
Although all individ-
uals living with lower limb loss are at an increased risk of
comorbidities such as osteoarthritis in proximal and contralat-
eral joints, the risk of osteoarthritis among women with ampu-
tation is elevated 15% for each kg/m
2
.
14
This supports the
need to address weight management, lower extremity strength-
ening, and activity modi
fication in this specific demographic.
Another common pathology in women is osteoporosis.
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