Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
In all patients with IMH, medical therapy
including pain relief and blood pressure
control is recommended.
I
C
In cases of Type A IMH, urgent surgery is
indicated.
I
C
In cases of Type B IMH, initial medical
therapy under careful surveillance is
recommended.
I
C
In uncomplicated
c
Type B IMH, repetitive
imaging (MRI or CT) is indicated.
I
C
In complicated
c
Type B IMH, TEVAR
should be considered.
IIa
C
In complicated
c
Type B IMH, surgery may
be considered.
IIb
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Uncomplicated/complicated IMH means absence or present recurrent pain,
expansion of the IMH, periaortic haematoma, intimal disruption.
CT ¼ computed tomography; IMH ¼ intramural haematoma; MRI ¼ magnetic
resonance imaging; TEVAR ¼ thoracic endovascular aortic repair.
6.5 Penetrating aortic ulcer
6.5.1 Definition
Penetrating aortic ulcer (PAU) is defined as ulceration of an aortic
atherosclerotic plaque penetrating through the internal elastic
lamina into the media.
251
Such lesions represent 2 – 7% of all
AAS.
252
Propagation of the ulcerative process may either lead to
IMH, pseudoaneurysm, or even aortic rupture, or an acute AD.
253
The natural history of this lesion is characterized by progressive
aortic enlargement and development of saccular or fusiform aneur-
ysms, which is particularly accelerated in the ascending aorta (Type
A PAU).
245
,
251
,
253
,
254
PAU is often encountered in the setting of ex-
tensive atherosclerosis of the thoracic aorta, may be multiple, and
may vary greatly in size and depth within the vessel wall.
255
The
most common location of PAU is the middle and lower descending
thoracic aorta (Type B PAU). Less frequently, PAUs are located in
the aortic arch or abdominal aorta, while involvement of the ascend-
ing aorta is rare.
245
,
251
,
256
,
257
Common features in patients affected
by PAU include older age, male gender, tobacco smoking, hyperten-
sion, coronary artery disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, and concurrent abdominal aneurysm.
256
–
258
Symptoms
may be similar to those of AD, although they occur more often in
elderly patients and rarely manifest as signs of organ malperfusion.
259
Symptoms have to be assumed to indicate an emergency as the ad-
ventitia is reached and aortic rupture expected. CT is the imaging
modality of choice to diagnose PAU as an out-pouching of contrast
media through a calcified plaque.
6.5.2 Diagnostic imaging
On unenhanced CT, PAU resembles an IMH. Contrast-enhanced
CT, including axial and multiplanar reformations, is the technique
of choice for diagnosis of PAU. The characteristic finding is loca-
lized ulceration, penetrating through the aortic intima into the
aortic wall in the mid- to distal third of the descending thoracic
aorta. Focal thickening or high attenuation of the adjacent aortic
wall suggests associated IMH. A potential disadvantage of MRI in
this setting, compared with CT, is its inability to reveal dislodge-
ment of the intimal calcifications that frequently accompany PAU
(Table
9
).
6.5.3 Management
In the presence of AAS related to PAU, the aim of treatment is to
prevent aortic rupture and progression to acute AD. The indications
for intervention include recurrent and refractory pain, as well as signs
of contained rupture, such as rapidly growing aortic ulcer, associated
periaortic haematoma, or pleural effusion.
241
,
258
,
259
It has been suggested that asymptomatic PAUs with diameter
.20 mm or neck .10 mm represent a higher risk for disease pro-
gression and may be candidates for early intervention.
241
However,
the size-related indications are not supported by other observa-
tions.
253
The value of FDG-positron emission tomography/CT is cur-
rently being investigated, for the assessment of the degree and
extension of lesion inflammation as a marker of aortic instability
and potential guidance for therapy.
86
6.5.4 Interventional therapy
In patients with PAU, no randomized studies are available that
compare open surgical- and endovascular treatment. The choice of
Table 9
Diagnostic value of different imaging modalities in acute aortic syndromes
Lesion
TTE
TOE
CT
MRI
Ascending aortic dissection
++
+++
+++
+++
Aortic arch dissection
+
+
+++
+++
Descending aortic dissection
+
+++
+++
+++
Size
++
+++
+++
+++
Mural thrombus
+
+++
+++
+++
Intramural haematoma
+
+++
++
+++
Penetrating aortic ulcer
++
++
+++
+++
Involvement of aortic branches
+
a
(+)
+++
+++
a
Can be improved when combined by vascular ultrasound (carotid, subclavian, vertebral, celiac, mesenteric and renal arteries).
++ + ¼ excellent; ++ ¼ moderate; +¼ poor; (+) = poor and inconstant; CT ¼ computed tomography; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging; TOE ¼ transoesophageal
echocardiography; TTE ¼ transthoracic echocardiography.
ESC Guidelines
2898
treatment is commonly based on anatomical features, clinical presen-
tation, and comorbidities. Since these patients are often poor candi-
dates for conventional surgery due to advanced age and related
comorbidities—and the aortic lesions, due to their segmental
nature, represent an ideal anatomical target for stenting—TEVAR is
increasingly being used for this indication, with encouraging
results.
255
,
259
–
261
Recommendations on management of penetrating
aortic ulcer
Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
In all patients with PAU, medical therapy
including pain relief and blood pressure
control is recommended.
I
C
In the case of Type A PAU, surgery should
be considered.
IIa
C
In the case of Type B PAU, initial medical
therapy under careful surveillance is
recommended.
I
C
In uncomplicated Type B PAU, repetitive
imaging (MRI or CT) is indicated.
I
C
In complicated Type B PAU, TEVAR
should be considered.
IIa
C
In complicated Type B PAU, surgery may
be considered.
IIb
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
CT ¼ computed tomography; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging;
PAU ¼ penetrating aortic ulcer; TEVAR ¼ thoracic endovascular aortic repair.
6.6 Aortic pseudoaneurysm
Aortic pseudoaneurysm (false aneurysm) is defined as a dilation of
the aorta due to disruption of all wall layers, which is only contained
by the periaortic connective tissue. When the pressure of the aortic
pseudoaneurysm exceeds the maximally tolerated wall tension of the
surrounding tissue, fatal rupture occurs. Other life-threatening com-
plications—due to the progressive increase of the size of the aortic
pseundoaneurysm—include fistula formation and the compression
or erosion of surrounding structures. Pseudoaneurysms of the thor-
acic aorta are commonly secondary to blunt thoracic trauma, as a
consequence of rapid deceleration experienced in motor vehicle
accidents, falls, and sports injuries.
262
Iatrogenic aetiologies include
aortic surgery and catheter-based interventions.
263
–
265
Rarely,
aortic pseudoaneurysms are secondary to aortic infections
(mycotic aneurysms) and penetrating ulcers.
In patients with aortic pseudoaneurysms—if feasible and inde-
pendently of size—interventional or open surgical interventions
are always indicated. Currently, no randomized studies are available
that compare outcomes after open surgical and endovascular treat-
ment in aortic pseudoaneurysm patients. The choice of treatment
is commonly based on anatomical features, clinical presentation,
and comorbidities.
6.7 (Contained) rupture of aortic
aneurysm
Contained rupture should be suspected in all patients presenting with
acute pain, in whom imaging detects aortic aneurysm with preserved
integrity of the aortic wall. In this setting, recurrent or refractory
pain—as well as pleural or peritoneal effusions, particularly if increas-
ing—identifies patients at highest risk of aortic rupture. At the time of
imaging, aortic rupture may be difficult to differentiate from con-
tained aortic rupture. In contrast to overt free rupture (in which dis-
ruption of all of the layers of the aortic wall leads to massive
haematoma), in contained ruptures of aortic aneurysms (with or
without pseudoaneurysm formation), perivascular haematoma is
sealed off by periaortic structures, such as the pleura, pericardium
and retroperitoneal space, as well as the surrounding organs. There-
fore, patients with contained aortic rupture are haemodynamically
stable.
6.7.1 Contained rupture of thoracic aortic aneurysm
6.7.1.1 Clinical presentation
Patients with contained rupture of a TAA usually present with acute
onset of chest and/or back pain. Concurrent abdominal pain may be
present in patients with symptomatic thoraco-abdominal aneurysms.
Overt free aortic rupture typically leads rapidly to internal bleeding
and death. Acute respiratory failure may be the result of free aortic
rupture into the left hemithorax. Rarely, erosion into mediastinal
structures can result in haemoptysis from aortobronchial fistula or
haematemesis from an aorto-oesophageal fistula. The location of
the rupture is of paramount importance, as it is pertinent to prognosis
and management. As a general rule, the closer the location of the an-
eurysm to the aortic valve, the greater the risk of death. Fewer than
half of all patients with rupture arrive at hospital alive; mortality may
be as high as 54% at 6 hours and 76% at 24 hours after the initial
event.
123
6.7.1.2 Diagnostic work-up
With the suspicion of (contained) rupture of a TAA, CT is indicated,
using a protocol including a non-contrast phase to detect IMH, fol-
lowed by a contrast injection to delineate the presence of contrast
leaks indicating rupture. In addition to the entire aorta, imaging
should cover the iliac and femoral arteries, to provide sufficient infor-
mation for the planning of surgical or endovascular treatment. Con-
tained (also called impending) ruptures of TAA are indications for
urgent treatment because of the risk of imminent internal bleeding
and death. As a general rule and in the absence of contraindications,
symptomatic patients should be treated regardless of the diameter of
the aneurysm because of the risk of aortic rupture.
266
Open surgical
and endovascular options should be carefully balanced in terms of
risks and benefits, case by case, depending also on local expertise.
The planning and performance of TEVAR for (contained) rupture
of TAA should be performed according to the recent ESC/European
Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery consensus document.
11
Favourable anatomical factors for an endovascular repair include
the presence of adequate proximal and distal landing zones for the
prosthesis and adequate iliac/femoral vessels for vascular access.
6.7.1.3 Treatment
Contained rupture of TAA is a condition requiring urgent treatment
because, once overt free rupture occurs, most patients do not
survive. Traditionally, this condition has been treated by open
repair, but endovascular repair has emerged as an alternative treat-
ment option for suitable patients. A meta-analysis of 28 retrospective
series, comparing open with endovascular repair in a total of 224
ESC Guidelines
2899
patients, documented a 30-day mortality rate of 33% in the open sur-
gical group and 19% in the TEVAR group (P ¼ 0.016).
267
In a retro-
spective multicentre analysis of 161 patients, the 30-mortalities in
the surgical- and TEVAR groups were 25% and 17%, respectively
(P ¼ 0.26).
268
The composite outcome of death, stroke, or perman-
ent paraplegia occurred in 36% of patients in the open repair group,
compared with 22% in the TEVAR group. An analysis of the US Na-
tionwide Inpatient Sample data set identified 923 patients who
underwent ruptured descending TAA repair between 2006 and
2008, and who had no concomitant aortic disorders. Of these
patients, 61% underwent open repair and 39% TEVAR. Unadjusted
in-hospital mortality was 29% for open surgery and 23% for TEVAR
(P ¼ 0.064).
269
After multivariable adjustment, the odds of mortality,
complications, and failure to rescue were similar for open surgery and
TEVAR.
Recommendations for (contained) rupture the thoracic
aortic aneurysm
Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
In patients with suspected rupture of
the TAA, emergency CT angiography
for diagnosis confirmation is
recommended.
I
C
In patients with acute contained rupture
of TAA, urgent repair is recommended.
I
C
If the anatomy is favourable and the
expertise available, endovascular repair
(TEVAR) should be preferred over open
surgery.
I
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
CT ¼ computed tomography; TAA ¼ thoracic aortic aneurysm;
TEVAR ¼ thoracic endovascular aortic repair.
6.8 Traumatic aortic injury
6.8.1 Definition, epidemiology and classification
Blunt traumatic thoracic aortic injury (TAI) most often occurs as a
consequence of sudden deceleration resulting from head-on or side-
impact collisions, usually in high-speed motor vehicle accidents or
falling from a great height. Rapid deceleration results in torsion and
shearing forces at relatively immobile portions of the aorta, such as
the aortic root or in proximity of the ligamentum arteriosum or
the diaphragm. A combination of compression and upward thrust
of the mediastinum, sudden blood pressure elevation, and stretching
of the aorta over the spine may also explain the pathogenesis of TAI.
Accordingly, TAI is located at the aortic isthmus in up to 90% of
cases.
270
,
271
A classification scheme for TAI has been proposed:
Type I (intimal tear), Type II (IMH), Type III (pseudoaneurysm), and
Type IV (rupture).
272
Thoracic aortic injury is, after brain injury, the
second most common cause of death in blunt trauma patients; the
on-site mortality may exceed 80%. With improved rescue processes
and rapid detection of TAI, patients who initially survive are more
likely to undergo successful repair.
6.8.2 Patient presentation and diagnosis
The clinical presentation of TAI ranges from minor non-specific
symptoms to mediastinal or interscapular pain. In a multicentre
retrospective study of 640 patients a score data set was developed
in one group and validated in another. Emergency CT should be per-
formed. Computed tomography is quick and reproducible, with sen-
sitivity and specificity close to 100% for TAI. Predictors of TAI were
widened mediastinum, hypotension ,90 mm Hg, long bone frac-
ture, pulmonary contusion, left scapula fracture, haemothorax,
and pelvic fracture. Sensitivity reached 93% and specificity 86% in
the validation set of patients.
273
Also, CT allows simultaneous
imaging of other organs (brain, visceral and bones injuries). Other
findings associated with TAI may include mediastinal haematoma,
haemothorax, and at the level of the aortic wall pseudoaneurysm,
intimal flap, or thrombus formation. Finally, CT allows for 3D recon-
structions with MPR that are critical for TEVAR. Alternatively, TOE is
widely available, relatively non-invasive, and can be performed
quickly at the bedside or in the operating room. In a subset of 101
patients with TAI, TOE reached a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity
of 98% for detection of an injury of the aortic wall, but was possible
only in 93 (92%) patients. Traumatic aortic injury was found in 11
(12%) of 93 patients and validated by surgery or autopsy.
274
In a
smaller series of 32 patients, similarly high values were observed,
yielding a sensitivity of 91% and a specificity of 100% for TAI with sub-
adventitial injury. Only one intimal tear was missed.
275
Despite these
excellent results, TOE has a limited value in the evaluation of asso-
ciated thoracic or abdominal injuries.
6.8.3 Indications for treatment in traumatic aortic injury
The appropriate timing of treatment in patients with TAI is still con-
troversial. In haemodynamically stable patients, the majority of
TAI-associated aortic ruptures were believed to occur within 24
hours. For this reason, immediate treatment of TAI has for many
years been considered to be the standard of care. Subsequently,
several studies have suggested a reduction in paraplegia and mortality
associated with delayed aortic treatment in selected patients requir-
ing management of additional extensive injuries.
276
In those patients,
aortic repair should then be performed as soon as possible after initial
injury (i.e. within 24 hours). A classification system has recently been
worked out.
268
The type of aortic injury is a critical factor determining the timing of
intervention. Patients with free aortic rupture or large periaortic
haematoma should be treated as emergency cases. For all other con-
ditions, the intervention may be delayed for up to 24 hours to allow
for patient stabilization and the best possible conditions for the aortic
intervention. An initial conservative management, with serial imaging,
has been proposed for patients with minimal aortic injuries (intimal
tear/Type I lesions), as most lesions remain stable or resolve.
277
,
278
6.8.4 Medical therapy in traumatic aortic injury
In polytrauma patients, multidisciplinary management is vital to estab-
lish the correct timing of the interventions and treatment priorities.
Aggressive fluid administration should be avoided because it may ex-
acerbate bleeding, coagulopathy, and hypertension; to reduce the
risk of aortic rupture, mean blood pressure should not exceed
80 mm Hg.
272
,
279
,
280
6.8.5 Surgery in traumatic aortic injury
To facilitate access, open surgical repair of a TAI at the classic isthmus
location requires exposure of the aorta via a left fourth interspace
ESC Guidelines
2900
thoracotomy, as well as selective right lung ventilation. The aorta is
clamped proximally to the origin of the left subclavian artery and dis-
tally to the injured segment. Until the mid-1980s, most of these pro-
cedures were completed with an expeditious clamp-and-sew
technique. A meta-analyses of this technique reported mortality
and paraplegia rates of 16 – 31% and 5 – 19%, respectively.
262
,
281
,
282
Various methods of distal aortic perfusion have been used to
protect the spinal cord. The use of extracorporeal circulation has
been associated with a reduced risk of perioperative mortality and
paraplegia. A meta-analysis and large cohort studies of active vs.
passive perfusion showed a lower rate of post-operative paraplegia
from 19% to 3% and a reduction in mortality from 30% to 12% asso-
ciated with active perfusion.
283
,
284
6.8.6 Endovascular therapy in traumatic aortic injury
Available data indicate that TEVAR, in suitable anatomies, should be
the preferred treatment option in TAI.
262
,
268
,
269
,
278
,
281
,
285
–
295
In a
review of 139 studies (7768 patients), the majority being non-
comparative case series, retrospective in design, and none being a
randomized trial, a significantly lower mortality rate has been
reported for TEVAR than for open surgery (9 vs. 19%; P , 0.01).
276
Similarly, most other systematic reviews suggested an advantage
from TEVAR, in terms of survival as well as a decreased incidence
of paraplegia, when compared with open surgery. Endoleak rates of
up to 5.2% and a stent collapse rate of 2.5%, with a mortality rate
of 12.9% associated with the latter complication, have been reported
for TEVAR.
276
,
289
6.8.7 Long-term surveillance in traumatic aortic injury
CT is currently considered the standard imaging modality for
follow-up in patients who benefit from TEVAR; however, given
the frequent young age of patients with TAI, concerns arise with
regard to cumulative exposure to radiation and iodinated contrast
medium.
83
For these reasons MRI is the best alternative for sur-
veillance when magnetic resonance-compatible stent grafts are
employed. It therefore seems rational to adopt a combination of
a multiview chest X-ray and MRI, instead of CT, for long-term
follow-up of these patients, with due consideration of the metallic
composition of the endograft. By these two modalities, endoleaks,
pseudoaneurysm, and stent graft material-related complications
can be detected.
Recommendations for traumatic aortic injury
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