5. PERFORM THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDED TO SUPPORT COST-EFFECTIVE
OPERATIONS AND IMPROVE VACCINATION AND DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS
Research supports the scientific underpinnings of the strategies and shapes evidence-based
policy. An international meeting hosted by CDC in May 2011 highlighted the critical research
areas necessary to achieve measles and rubella/CRS eradication
1
. These areas comprise:
measles, rubella and CRS epidemiology; assessing vaccine efficacy and effectiveness; needle-
free vaccine-delivery methods (e.g. aerosolized or powdered vaccines inhaled through the
respiratory tract); improved methods for laboratory testing for measles, rubella and CRS;
new immunization strategies; improved methods to monitor and evaluate measles and rubella
vaccination programmes; development of effective advocacy tools to use with decision-makers,
and improved messages and strategies to communicate with potential beneficiaries and their
families; economic analyses of different strategic options; and mathematical modelling.
1
Report of the
measles and rubella
research meeting,
2011. [Submitted for
publication].
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GUIDING PRINCIPLES TO
ELIMINATE MEASLES,
RUBELLA AND CRS
Experience with targeted measles control activities and with polio eradication over the past
decade led to the identification of key factors promoting success to guide the planning and
implementation of measles, rubella and future infectious disease control efforts.
1. COUNTRY OWNERSHIP AND SUSTAINABILITY
National health leaders maintain responsibility for the well-being of their citizens, and building
and attaining full country ownership is essential to achieve and sustain public health goals.
Making the transition from the current situation to sustained high levels of population immunity
will require national governments and civil society to work together, with the shared goal of
achieving financial and technical self-reliance.
Achieving this ownership requires country political commitment and advocacy. Health-
sector plans should fully integrate the national immunization programme plans and align
with comprehensive multiyear plans for immunization (cMYPs). The cMYP planning process
synthesizes estimates of programme needs and costs. In addition, performing the necessary
analyses for costing and financing is a key step for national immunization programmes towards
financial self-reliance. The cMYPs normally include financing for the first and second dose of
MCV whether through routine immunization services or regular SIAs (for second dose only)
held every two to four years, or both. They may also include the financing for the introduction
of RCV into routine immunization and, if appropriate, SIAs.
Low-income countries reliant on external financial support for measles and rubella control and
elimination activities should work to increase their contribution to the vaccination programme
from their national budgets and to achieve self-reliance and financial sustainability. In addition
to purchasing and delivering routine vaccinations, including MCV or combination measles- and
rubella-containing vaccines, countries should finance at least 50% of the operational cost for
follow-up SIAs supported by the MR Initiative. Achieving programme sustainability will require
high-level advocacy and technical capacity-building at all levels within the country.
2. ROUTINE IMMUNIZATION AND HEALTH SYSTEMS STRENGTHENING
Achievement of regional and global measles and rubella goals requires robust and effective
health and immunization systems, particularly a strong national EPI. Each country should take
responsibility for providing the resources necessary to strengthen immunization systems,
including high-quality routine immunization programmes and SIAs, disease surveillance,
programme monitoring and an integrated laboratory network. Higher and more homogenous
routine MCV1 coverage increases population immunity, thus eliminating the need for SIAs, or
lengthening the interval between them. Better MCV1 coverage also allows introduction of a
second dose in the routine system.
Providing measles and rubella vaccination through routine immunization systems offers
an opportunity to strengthen health systems. Measles and rubella vaccination visits often
represent the last routine contact between a child and the health system for preventive
care, and serves as a key opportunity to monitor the vaccination and health status of the
child, administer any missed or booster vaccine doses, distribute long-lasting insecticide
treated bednets (LLINs) and provide vitamin A, as appropriate. SIAs can, and should, help
strengthen routine immunization and health systems. Case studies have demonstrated that
7
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properly planned measles SIAs can strengthen national health
systems through renewed attention to effective and timely
micro-planning, training and supervision of health workers,
reinforcement of the cold chain, improvement of the waste-
management system, increased injection-safety standards,
strengthened disease surveillance and the use of surveillance
data for fine-tuning programme management (46,47). To ensure
that SIAs help strengthen immunization and surveillance
systems, the MR Initiative invested additional resources in its
SIA financial planning for health system strengthening activities.
The MR Initiative continues to explore the best approaches to
integrate measles and rubella activities to help build stronger
routine immunization and health systems.
3. EQUITY
The WHO Constitution holds that “[t]he enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health
is one of the fundamental rights of every human being...” By extension, all people, without
distinction of gender, race, religion, age, political belief or economic or social condition,
should benefit from disease-prevention programmes, and vaccination and protection against
measles and rubella. Outreach activities and SIAs to deliver vaccines and other child-survival
interventions specifically target children missed by routine services, including underserved,
migrant and poor children. Studies in Ghana and Zambia (48) and Kenya (37) demonstrated
that measles SIAs improve equity by reducing the gap in immunity between rich and poor
households (see Figure 5). In addition, they provide an ideal platform for delivering other life-
saving child-health interventions and health education. The goal of vaccinating all children
ensures equity in health-service delivery, as countries develop their own routine and health
systems.
4. LINKAGES
In public health, resources are rarely adequate for all needs, and interventions should thus be
linked whenever possible. Combining measles and rubella control activities, and linking them
to other health interventions while seeking synergies with all immunization efforts, follows the
recommendations of the Global Immunization Vision and Strategy (GIVS). The following are
examples of linkages that maximize the benefits and efficiency of investments:
With polio eradication: The strategies for measles and rubella elimination build on the
principles and strategies developed for the GPEI. Both programmes work best in the presence
of a strong routine immunization system to ensure sustained high levels of vaccine coverage,
and both require SIAs to fill any gaps left by routine services to increase population immunity
among wide age groups, regardless of previous vaccination or disease history. Providing polio
vaccination during measles SIAs, strengthening routine immunization systems and combining
efforts to strengthen surveillance for both diseases will facilitate both polio eradication and
measles and rubella control and elimination targets. As the end-game strategy for polio
eradication evolves, new opportunities for linkages between polio and measles may emerge
— these may be related to the routine delivery of an inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) dose at
nine months, and needle-free injection technologies (patch/jet injectors), among others. Polio
surveillance officers also play key roles in planning, organizing and monitoring measles SIAs
and in strengthening routine immunization.
Underserved, migrant
and poor children
missed by routine
services have the right
to vaccination and
should be specifically
targeted by SIAs and/or
other outreach efforts.
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With new vaccines: New vaccines, such as meningitis and human papillomavirus (HPV)
vaccines, provide opportunities for measles and rubella in terms of overlapping target groups,
synergies to promote school vaccination and school entry screening, and combined planning
and implementation.
With other proven child survival interventions: The routine measles vaccination visit at nine
months is widely used to provide vitamin A supplementation and an LLIN. This practice not
only provides a high proportion of infants with these proven interventions but also provides
additional incentives towards having a child fully vaccinated. The routine second dose contact
can similarly be used as an “older healthy child visit” that combines vaccination with deworming,
growth monitoring and semi-annual vitamin A supplementation. Through participation of
the Lions Club in the MR Initiative the synergy between two proven interventions to reduce
blindness, measles vaccination and vitamin A supplementation, will be further expanded,
including the mobilization of national Lions Club volunteers. In addition, measles vaccination
campaigns provide an equitable and effective platform to reach migrant, underserved and
poor children with other proven interventions such as LLINs, vitamin A supplementation and
deworming treatment. Such integration is now standard practice for SIAs supported by the MR
Initiative in Africa and elsewhere. Studies from African countries concluded that integrated
packages of high-impact interventions, including MCV delivered through campaigns, helped
save lives, and that advance planning efforts successfully addressed formidable logistical
challenges (48).
Surveillance activities: Measles and rubella surveillance is linked whenever possible to
other disease-surveillance initiatives. In polio priority countries, the polio surveillance
officers support measles outbreak investigations and surveillance activities. Many countries
have integrated disease surveillance and response programmes that manage measles and
rubella surveillance activities, and often a single institution contains both the national polio
and measles laboratories. The equipment, training and quality assurance that support the
confirmation of measles and rubella through an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
provide an effective platform for confirmation of other vaccine-preventable diseases, such as
yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis.
In summary, the measles and rubella strategy cuts across a broad range of other immunization
and child-health programmes, and this Plan recognizes the importance of strengthening the
control and elimination of measles and rubella while concomitantly improving health and
health systems overall.
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0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
SIA
Routine
Richest
Fourth*
Middle
Second*
Wealth Quintile
Measles vaccine coverage
Poorest*
Figure 5:
Nationwide routine and SIA measles vaccine coverage by wealth quintile among children aged 9–23 months,
Kenya, 2002. Lines above and below the point estimates of coverage represent 95% confidence intervals, and (*)
indicates a statistically significant (α = 0.05) difference between routine and SIA measles vaccine coverage
(Source: reference 37).
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CHALLENGES
TO IMPLEMENTING
THE STRATEGIC PLAN
Measles, rubella and CRS elimination strategies have been successful in the WHO Region of
the Americas and in a number of countries in other WHO regions. However, these strategies
may not perform the same way in all countries, and experiences of the GPEI reveal the
importance of identifying, anticipating and addressing barriers to effective implementation of
disease-control strategies. Resource limitations represent a major constraint. Comprehensive
analyses of the feasibility of measles elimination by each WHO regional office and discussions
about enabling factors, barriers and lessons learnt, led to the identification of the following five
key challenges to implementing this Strategic Plan and potential solutions to address them.
1. FINANCIAL RISKS
Sufficient predictable and sustainable funds are a cornerstone to building a strong health
system, delivering effective routine immunization and achieving the goals of control,
elimination and eradication. Complacency following the initial success of accelerated control
activities, and intense competition for human and financial resources between global health
initiatives, including polio eradication and new vaccine introduction, caused delays in funding
for preventive measles SIAs in priority countries. This resulted in a resurgence of measles
cases and deaths. The MR Initiative will work with countries and all stakeholders to maintain
and increase funding in this environment, to ensure optimal timing of measles SIAs based on
technical and operational criteria.
The MR Initiative will continue to highlight the global benefits of implementing measles and
rubella elimination strategies and the potential for synergies between different child-survival
programmes. It will collaborate with other global health initiatives to strengthen routine
immunization and surveillance, and increase access, when possible and as appropriate, to
other child-survival health interventions. Strategically, the MR Initiative will seek to accelerate
global and regional resource mobilization and advocacy efforts, communicate the measles-
mortality reduction success story, and emphasize the potential risks of losing the gains
achieved to date (including the MDG4 gains) due to the resurgence of measles in the African
Region, widespread transmission in India, and prolonged outbreaks in western Europe.
The MR Initiative and its partners aim to support every country and region in the fight against
measles, rubella and CRS through the development of a long-term and sustainable approach.
Given resource limitations, the MR Initiative will prioritize countries in which the majority of
measles deaths and CRS cases occur, and will focus on achieving the World Health Assembly
2015 targets of mortality reduction. Annex 1 provides a list of current measles and rubella
priority countries, selected on their classification as low- or lower middle-income plus their
relatively low routine measles immunization coverage (MCV1 <90%) or their lack of inclusion of
RCV into routine immunization.
The MR Initiative will work closely with GAVI, which continues to support introduction of a
second dose of measles vaccine into routine immunization systems, and to encourage
and support GAVI-eligible countries to take advantage of the recently opened GAVI funding
window to support the introduction of RCV. The MR Initiative will also pursue advocacy and
communications efforts at all levels to sustain the political commitment and resources
necessary to achieve the 2015 and 2020 targets of the Strategic Plan.
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2. HIGH POPULATION DENSITY AND HIGHLY MOBILE POPULATIONS
In settings with high population density and along migration routes (including air travel
and during mass gatherings), the highly infectious nature of measles makes control and
elimination very challenging. For example, India currently has the largest estimated number of
measles cases and deaths due to its relatively low routine immunization coverage, incomplete
implementation of a two-dose strategy for measles control and high-density populations.
In some Indian states, achieving measles control may prove as technically challenging as it
has been for polio eradication, although successes in 2011 with polio in India provide clear
demonstration of the ability of the Government of India to overcome large challenges. For
measles and rubella, reaching a national-level technical consensus on the need for control
and elimination represents a critical first step for India. Continued support and advocacy to
every level of government can build on current efforts to implement a nationwide two-dose
measles (or MR or MMR in some states) strategy, together with efforts to strengthen routine
immunization programmes. The MR Initiative will support the research needed to address
key questions, such as the level of vaccination coverage required to stop transmission in the
densely populated states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, and the types of operational strategies
required, based largely on the extensive GPEI block-by-block research.
The MR Initiative will support research activities that provide evidence-based strategies to
address the challenges posed by high levels of population movement within and between
countries, which exist in South Asia and West Africa. In addition, it will focus efforts on
developing the communication tools and strategies required to reach migrants and isolated
populations, including religious groups that typically do not interact with national health
systems.
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3. WEAK IMMUNIZATION SYSTEMS AND INACCURATE REPORTING OF VACCINATION
COVERAGE
The resurgence of measles in Africa during 2009 and 2010 occurred largely due to underlying
weaknesses in health systems, including difficulties in reaching and sustaining high vaccination
coverage (15). These outbreaks suggest over-reporting of routine and SIA coverage in certain
countries which can result in miscalculation of population immunity and the appropriate
interval between follow-up SIAs.
The high infectiousness of measles and the high rate of clinical disease with infection make
measles outbreaks one of the first indicators of programme weakness. Strengthening routine
immunization systems is critical to attain measles control and elimination and to sustain any
gains made.
The MR Initiative will increase support to countries to strengthen routine immunization systems
by documenting and disseminating the experiences and outcomes of implementing “best
practices” in conducting measles SIAs. In addition, the MR Initiative will support the inclusion
of specific routine systems strengthening activities as part of M or MR SIAs. Other activities
supported by the MR Initiative will be regular data validation (data quality assessments and
surveys), greater accuracy of coverage data by taking full advantage of high-quality household
surveys, and technical support for the planning, implementation and monitoring of SIAs,
particularly in countries with relatively weak health systems. Furthermore, activities such as
EPI programme reviews and Post Introduction Evaluations, or new vaccines (including routine
measles second dose and RCV), represent key opportunities to review measles vaccination
performance and the system components of the EPI programme. Typically, with the participation
of external partners, these activities generate high-level national and international attention.
Linking the outcomes and recommendations of the reviews to the multiyear planning process
will lead to more systematic follow-up, which increases the chances of securing financial
resources to implement actions.
4. MANAGING PERCEPTIONS AND MISPERCEPTIONS
In many wealthy and middle-income countries, improvements in living standards, nutrition,
and quality of health care have reduced the measles mortality rate to such low levels that
many citizens no longer perceive measles or rubella as a serious problem. When individuals
no longer see cases of a previously common disease they begin to believe the vaccine no
longer provides benefits. Thus, successful vaccination programmes can begin to suffer from
public misperceptions that any risks associated with the vaccine might outweigh the invisible
benefits. This misperception becomes an even greater problem if messages about AEFIs get
amplified in the media while ignoring the benefits of vaccination.
Currently, pockets of resistance to immunization, especially to combination MCVs such as
MMR, exist in some countries, most notably in North America and western Europe. This
has resulted largely from the efforts of anti-vaccine groups and from highly publicized but
completely discredited vaccine safety concerns (49). This resistance contributes significantly
to the ongoing resurgence of transmission in western Europe, to the export of measles virus
globally, and also to the large outbreak in 2010 in several countries in southern Africa. The
spread of measles to the Americas required countries to divert resources for expensive
outbreak investigations and vaccination responses.
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