Allmark-Kent 33
CHAPTER TWO
KNOWING OTHER ANIMALS: NONHUMANS IN TWENTIETH-
CENTURY CANADIAN LITERATURE
Canadians and Animals
“Canadian literature is full of claims made on behalf of animals,” (1)
begins Janice Fiamengo’s introduction to
Other Selves: Animals in the
Canadian Imagination
(2007). As indicated by this remark, I would add that
Canadian literary criticism is full of claims about animals made on behalf of a
nation. Three influential texts by Canadian critics Alec Lucas, James Polk and
Margaret Atwood have supported the assumption that Canadian literature is
‘full’ of animals, and have continued to shape studies in this area.
1
In
The
Wacousta Syndrome
(1985), Gaile McGregor epitomises the attitude shared by
these critics and makes one such claim on behalf of the nation
: “Canadians are
fascinated by animals” (192). Until recently, little serious critical attention had
been paid to the presence of animals in Canadian literature, and yet influential
critics continued to identify this presence as unique
—perhaps even “distinctively
Canadian” (Atwood 73). Hence, the representation of animals in Canadian
literature was simultaneously recognized as significant, yet unworthy of any
rigorous scholarly consideration.
This oversight was of course due to the general anthropocentrism of the
humanities discussed in the previous chapter, but it was exacerbated by the
perception of the wild animal story as a national literary embarrassment
following the Nature Fakers controversy. For instance, Polk opens his famous
1
In the
Literary History of Canada
(1965), Alec Lucas’ survey “Nature Writers and the Animal
Story”; James Polk’s “Lives of the Hunted” published in issue 53 of
Canadian Literature
(Summer 1972) and Margaret Atwood’s
Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature
(1972).
Allmark-Kent 34
article “Lives of the Hunted” with a quote from E.O. Wilson in which the
American biologist imagines the Canadian wilderness to be full of the animal
characters from Ernest Thompson Seton’s stories. With obvious resentment,
Polk responds: “Typically American, we sigh, to see Canada as a hunters’ game
park and to hold firmly to the legends transmitted by an
outdated,
scarcely
respectable
branch of our literature” (51, emphasis added). Yet, as a genre
almost exclusive to Canadian authors, the wild animal story came to be seen as
representative of
all
depictions of animals in Canadian literature. If the genre
was “distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73), the thinking went, then it must have
sprung from some distinctively Canadian way of perceiving animals. Indeed
Atwood, influenced by Polk, proposed a theory about the importance of animals
to ‘the Canadian psyche’ based entirely on the stories of Seton and Charles
G.D. Roberts (73). It is perhaps unscholarly to make such claims on behalf of
the nation based on the work of only two authors, both of whom wrote at the
same time and were undoubtedly influenced by each other. Trends for the type
of criticism shared by Atwood, Polk, and the others
—mostly thematic and
nationalist
—faded somewhat and interest in the presence of animals in
Canadian literature seems to have correspondingly diminished. As the diversity
of essays in
Other Selves
suggests however, the rise in literary animal studies
signals that it is less embarrassing to take seriously that
‘scarcely respectable’
aspect of Canadian literature. The emerging field of Canadian literary animal
studies does of course recognize works beyond Seton and Roberts, and the
diversity of attitudes to animals represented.
Nonetheless, despite obvious changes in the style of critical analysis,
claims about animals are sti
ll being made on behalf of the nation: “Animals are
so fundamental to our [Canadian] writing that it might indeed be said that our
Allmark-Kent 35
literature is founded on the bodies of animals
—alive or dead;
anthropomorphized or ‘realistic’; indigenous or exotic; sentimental, tragic,
magical and mythical” (Fiamengo 5-6). So whilst this has been acknowledged
both broadly and repeatedly, there have actually been remarkably few attempts
to either characterize or explain this apparent ‘fascination’. To do so would
require a comprehensive survey of animals in Canadian literature, and whilst
Fiamengo’s collection demonstrates the potential heterogeneity of
representations, it is by no means a survey. On the other hand,
Lucas’ survey is
undoubtedly comprehensive, but it is now out-of-date and does not consider the
depiction of animals outside the genres of nature writing and the animal story.
This omission is highlighted when we consider
John Sandlos’ comment in his
detailed
article, “From Within Fur and Feathers” (2000): “perhaps the most
important development in the Canadian animal ‘story’ in the last three decades
is the attempt by many authors (even poets) with no strong ties to natural
history tradition to write about animals” (83-4).
The majority of the novels addressed in this chapter were produced
during the period that Sandlos identifies, motivated no doubt by the gradual
progression of animal and environmental politics from the margins towards
mainstream public concern. The development he identifies is also particularly
significant for my own argument that, after the Nature Fakers controversy, two
strands of the wild animal story developed from Seton
’s and Roberts’ work:
‘realistic’ and ‘speculative’. The realistic works are written by those with some
background in natural history, tending to write about animals regularly in both
fiction and nonfiction (Roderick Haig-Brown, Fred Bodsworth and R.D.
Lawrence), whereas the speculative narratives are by authors without this
expertise, and for whom this is their only work of animal literature (Frederick
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Philip Grove, Barbara Gowdy and Alison Baird).
Sandlos’ comment also
challenges the misconception that Seton
’s and Roberts’ style of animal
representation is the ‘Canadian style’ of animal representation, and reminds us
that, as Fiamengo states: “important encounters with animals abound in
[Canadian]
canonical works” (5). Hence, I suggest that this is the significant
point about Canadian literature: there is an abundance of narratives about
animals, yet there is also an abundance of animals in narratives about humans.
Even as minor characters, Canadian literary a
nimals are still ‘fascinating’.
To demonstrate the uniqueness of the wild animal story, then, it is
necessary to place it in relation to these other representations of animals in
Canadian literature. This chapter provides a brief literary survey of these
representations. As my research and thinking behind it has developed,
however, it has also become an attempt to hazard an explanation for this
seeming abundance of fascinating animals in Canadian literature. As practically
the only existing alternative
, I have of course used Atwood’s argument as a
starting point for my own opposing stance and in the following section I begin
with a thorough critique of
her ‘Canadian animal victims’ theory in
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