Allmark-Kent 31
of the Curlews
(1965), for
instance, Bodsworth repeatedly comments on the
“curlew’s instinct-dominated brain” (Bodsworth 9), whereas in
The White Puma
(1990), there are almost no references to instinct. Given this cautious
negotiation of animal psychology discourses, their authors resist any temptation
to ‘translate’ or interpret nonhuman communication, and remain relatively
detached from their protagonists, seeming to observe and narrate from a slight
distance. Thus, I suggest that they share more in common with Roberts’ careful
detachment than Seton’s tendency to push the boundaries of his
representations by imagining the perspectives
of his protagonists more
intimately or ‘translating’ the language of their species.
“Speculative Representations:
Consider Her Ways
,
The White Bone
, and
White as the Waves
” will focus on three novels frequently classified as
anthropomorphic fantasy, but each demonstrates sustained, scientifically-
informed, imaginative exploration of nonhuman experience. These somewhat
problematic texts may seem to have a tenuous relationship with the wild animal
story, but I have selected the six twentieth-century texts (whether realistic or
speculative) because they express all of the
genre’s
characteristics, as defined
by my framework. The three speculative novels all utilize innovative literary
techniques to create complex, zoocentric perspectives that offer defamiliarizing
representations of the violent or exploitative activities of humans. I contend that
their classification as ‘fantasy’ is due, in part, to the strategies employed for
avoiding the issues of fact and accuracy that were so contentious during the
Nature Fakers controversy. Instead, these texts engage with scientific research
in highly imaginative ways by pushing the boundaries of what is known about
each species (leafcutter ant, African elephant, and sperm whale) and
speculating on the upper limits of their intelligence. I believe that each author’s
Allmark-Kent 32
choice of species is significant, here, as each text imagines
the possibilities of
nonhuman language and culture.
The use of animals known to have high levels of co-operation and social
complexity indicates the speculative rather than fantastical function of these
texts. (Lik
ewise, it is worth noting that these speculations resemble Seton’s
attempts to use ‘translation’ to demonstrate the complexity of nonhuman
communication.) Although the potential for scientific engagement may seem
unlikely in the less realistic texts, their potential contributions for the study of
animal minds has already been noted. In
Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the
Ocean
(2003), biologist Hal Whitehead (another
Canadian, incidentally)
describes “two remarkable novels” published in the late 1990s, which are in fact
White as the Waves
and
The White Bone
(370). He perceives their significant
potential for fostering collaboration between science and storytelling:
Both novels use what is known of the biology and social lives of their
subject species to build pictures of elaborate societies, cultures, and
cognitive abilities. […] A reductionist might class these portraits with
Winnie-the-Pooh
as fantasies on the lives of animals. But for me they
ring true, and may well come closer to the natures of these animals than
the coarse numerical abstractions that come from my own scientific
observations […] These books are built on what we have found out about
sperm whale society and similar, but more
detailed, work by elephant
scientists. […] I think the communication should be reciprocal. We need
to take these constructions, note the large parts that are consistent with
what we now know, and use them as hypotheses to guide our work.
Sperm whale culture may be restricted to coda types and movement
patterns. But it could also include whole suites of techniques for making
a living from an unpredictable ocean and relating to other sperms. (370-
1)
In the concluding chapter of this thesis, I will consider
the possibilities of this
reciprocal communication as part of my final re-evaluation of the wild animal
story.
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