that
Fisher describes can be understood in two ways: first, the Ca
nadian animal’s
wildness
conveys an impression of alterity and autonomous agency, such that
Fisher’s categories—“victims, friends, predator, prey” (259)—seem inadequate
and reductive. Secondly,
the history of Canada’s complex and often
contradictory, relationship with the natural environment, which oscillates
between exploitation and protection, compounds the difficulties of
understanding wild animals and results in ambivalence about our relationship
with them. I begin by addressing the former concern, which seems to be
expressed throughout Canadian literature.
Although the agency of ‘the wild’ takes various forms, both negative and
positive, there seems to be a sense of confusing unpredictability which
manages to disrupt our ability to know, understand or predict the natural world.
Even
Atwood’s “dead and unanswering” nature seems nonetheless to convey a
sense of agency
: “Canadian writers as a whole do not trust Nature, they are
always suspecting some trick [...] that Nature
has betrayed expectation” (49).
Allmark-Kent 47
This expectation is of course Eurocentric in origin, as Christoph Irmscher
demonstrates in his analysis of early Canadian nature writing for
The
Cambridge Companion to Canadian Literature
(2004). He suggests that, from
the perspective of these authors, the natural environment
in Canada “follows
none of the established rules,
” posing both a “physical challenge” and a
“challenge to the powers of the writer” (95). Like Fisher he also utilizes the idea
of confusion: the vast Canadian wilderness, “often confuses the human
observer” leading to our feeling “uncertain” about our presence in the
environment (95). Interestingly though, this effect seems to have continued both
in Canadian literature and literary criticism. I argue that this Eurocentric settler
anxiety has shaped what Irmsc
her calls the “stubbornly anthropocentric” models
of C
anadian identity like Atwood’s “survival” or Northrop Frye’s “garrison
mentality” (95). He asserts that this anthropocentrism is a “striking limitation,
given the rather marginal presence of humans in a territory that includes such
vastly different landscapes as [...] mountains, lakes, grasslands, forests and
seashores
” (95). I suggest however, that Eurocentrism and anthropocentrism
are so closely linked that this oversight hardly surprising. Both of these writers
position the agency of the wild as problematic because it undermines the
anthropocentrism of their Eurocentric settler mentalities; whereas from the
perspective of Aboriginal cultures in which the dichotomy between humans and
nature does not exist, the anti-anthropocentric agency of nature is less of a
concern. Indeed, as I will argue later in this chapter, the alterity of the wild
animal is accepted and often celebrated in novels by Aboriginal authors,
typically using trickster figures like Coyote or Raven.
Whether represented positively or negatively, Canadian literature by both
Native and non-
Native authors tends to recognize the agency of ‘the wild,’ and
Allmark-Kent 48
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